
Glass Fl£|| 1 1 

Book S^y 



SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ON THE ^ 3 ( 

PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 



W\%\\ti for ^rhflols an^ %mitmt%. 



BY 

EOS WELL C. SMITH, 



NEW AND REVISED EDITION. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. 

18 8 6. 









3^ 



Copyright. 
E. H. BUTLER & €©» 

1882. 



TO THE PUBLIC. 



QMITH'S English Grammar has been extensively 
^ used for many years. During the entire time 
it has received the approval of teachers throughout 
the United States. 

Before electrotyping the work anew, it has been 
carefully and thoroughly revised. 

In presenting this edition, the hope is entertained 
that it will merit a continuance of the general favor 
which it has heretofore enjoyed. 

iii 



COI^TENTS. 



PAGE 

Nouns 7 

Number 7 

Gender 8 

Proper and Common Nouns 9 

Person 10 

Case 10 

Articles 13 

Adjectives 15 

Pronouns 17 

Verbs 20 

Indicative Mood — Tense 23 

Potential Mood 28 

Neuter Verb "To be" 31 

Adverbs 33 

Prepositions 35 

Conjunctions 36 

Interjections 39 

Orthography 41 

Etymology 41 

Syntax 42 

Nouns 42 

Person 43 

Gender 43 

Number 45 

Case 47 

Declension of Nouns 47 

Articles ; 49 

Adjectr^es 51 

Pronouns 53 

1* 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Compound Pebsonal Pronouns 54 

Adjective Pronouns 55 

Distributive Pronouns... 56 

Indefinite Pronouns 56 

Kelative Pronouns 58 

Compound and Interrogative Pronouns 60 

Verbs 62 

Mood or Mode 63 

Tense QQ 

Passive Verb 68 

Auxiliary Verb 69 

Signs of the Moods 69 

Signs of the Tenses of the Indicative 70 

Conjugation of Verbs 71 

Irregular Verbs 80 

Government of the Infinitive 83 

Defective Verbs = 90 

Adverbs = 92 

Prepositions 93 

Conjunctions 94 

Interjections 95 

Agreement of Nouns 96 

Nouns used independently 99 

Infinitive Mood 100 

Exercises 102 

Words used as different Parts of Speech 109 

Contractions 112 

Inverted Sentences 114 

Syntax 117 

Prosody 187 

Pronunciation 187 

Versification 187 

Poetical Feet 188 

Punctuation 188 

Capital Letters 19v 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



I. OF THE NOUISr. 

Q. "What is your name ? 

Q. What is the name of the town in which you live ? 

Q. AYhat does the word noun mean ? 

Ans, The word noun means name. 

Q. What, then, may your name be called? 

1. A NOUN. 

Q. What may all names be called ? 

2. Nouns. 

Q. Boston is the name of a place ; is Boston a noun ? and if so, why? 

3. Boston is a noun^ because it is a name. 

Q. Hudson is the name of a river; is Hudson a noun, and why ? 

Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is hooh a noun, and why? 

Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is ? 

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names of 
things ? two, the names of different places ? 

Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sentences, 
as I read them to you? 

^' Thomas and Joseph are in the house.'' 

^' The horse and cow are in the lot." 

"• The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." 

*' Trees, corn, potatoes, and apples grow in the fields." 



II. NUMBER. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word number; as, " The number of buttons 
on your coat" ? 

5. Number means one or more, 

Q. What does the word singular denote ? 

6. It denotes one. 

Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what numbei' is it ? 

7. Singular number. 

Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote? 

8. The singular numter denotes but one thing. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Q. Of what number is hooJc, and why ? 

9. Book is of the singular number^ because it means but 
one. 

Q. Of what number is ehair, and why ? 
Q. What does the word 2:)lural denote? 

10. It denotes more than one, 

Q. Of what number is lamps, and why ? 

11. Lamps is of the pkn^al number, because it means 
more than one. 

Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ? 

Q. By adding s to dove, and es to box, we have doves and boxes. How, 
then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 

12. By adding 5 or es to the singular. 

Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce? glass? loindow f theatre? antece- 
dent? church? labyrinth? 

Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

13. Two — the singular and the plural. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the singular nunaber? one of the plural 
number ? 



III. GENDER. 

Q. What does the word gender mean ? 

14. Gender signifies sex. 

Q. What does the word masculine mean ? 

15. It means male, 

Q. John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John? 

16. Of the masculine or male gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender ? 

17. The names of males. 

Q. Of what gender, then, is man, and why? 

18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the 
name of a male. 

Q. Of what gender is uncle, and why ? father f why ? 
Q. What does feminine mean ? 

19. It means /emafe. 

Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan f 

20. Of the feminine gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender ? 

21. The names of females. 

Q. Of what gender is woman, and why ? 

22. JVoman is of the feminine gender, because it is the 
name of a female. 

Q. Of what gender is aunt, and why? datighter ? why? 
Q. What does the word neuter mean ? 

23. It means neither, 

Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor of a female : of what gender, 
then, may it properly be called? 

24. Of the neuter gender. ^ 

Q, What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender ? 



NOUNS. 9 

25. The names of objects that are neither males nor 
females. 

Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ? 

26. Of the neuter gender, because it is the name neither 
of a male nor of a female. 

Q. Of what gender is bench ? why ? chai7' F why ? 

^. Parent y you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it 
is a name common to both; of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns 
2^s parent, bird, etc.? 

27. Of the common gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender? 

28. The names of such animals as may be either males 
or females. 

Q. Of what gender is sheejj, and why ? 

29. Shee2^ is of the common gender, because it is the 
name either of a male or of a female. 

Q. Of what gender is robin, and why? 

Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

30. Four— the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and 
the common. 

Q, Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine? 
one of the neuter ? one of the common ? 

Q. Will you name the gender and the number of each noun in the fol- 
lowing sentences, as I read them to you ? 

^' James and William." '' Slate and pencil." 

^' John and the girls." '^ Women and birds." 



IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word common; as, ^'A common com- 
plaint" ? 

31. Common means general. 

Q. Although there are a great many male children in the world, each one 
may be called by the general name of boy : what kind of noun, then, would 
you call boy f 

32. A common noun. 

Q. When, then, is a noun called common? 

33. When it is a general name. 

Q. What does the word proper mean ? 

34. iLtiaQdin^ jit ov particular. 

Q. John, you know, is the name of a particular boy : what kind of noun, 
then, may it be called? 

35. A proper noun. 

Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper ? 

36. When it is a particular name. 

Q. What kind of noun is Suftan, and why? 

37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particular 
name. 

Q, What kind of noun is John, and why ? 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What kind of noun is river, and why ? 

38. River is a common noun, because it is a general 
name. 

Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

Q. What kind of noun is griWsf Mary f town F New Yoi^k? London? hoatf 
chain f 

Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number ? 

^' Thomas and John.'' '' King and queen." 

"' Susan and Mary.'' ^' House and barn." 



V. PERSON. 

Q. When a person, in speaking, says, "I, John, will do it," what person 
do grammarians call John f 

39. The first person. 

Q, When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 

40. When it is the name of the person speaking. 

Q. When I say, " James, mind your studies," what person do gramma- 
rians call James? 

41. The second person, being the person spoken to. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person? 

42. AVhen it is the name of the person spoken to, or 
addressed. 

Q. ^' William, James has come." Of what person is William, and why ? 

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken to. 

Q. When I say, "■ William, James has come," I am speaking to William 
about James : of what person, then, is James, and why? 

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of; 
that is, I was talking about James. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 

45. When it is spoken of. 

Q. " Thomas, Kufus is in the garden." Of what person is Thomas f why? 
Biifus ? why ? 

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

46. Three persons — the first, the second, and the third. 

Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which 
common ; also their gender, number, and person ? 

*^ I, James, of Boston." '^ Boy and girl." 

^' Henry, study your book." '^ William and his sister." 



VI. CASE. 

Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when be is fat, that "He is 
in a good case;" and, when he is lean, that "He is in a bad case:" what, 
therefore, does the word case mean ? 

47. Case means condition, state, etc. 



CASES. 11 

Q. When I say, ''Charles strikes William," '^William strikes Charles," 
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former ex- 
ample is quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, 
Charles strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the dif- 
ferent cases of nouns? 

48. The different condition or position they have in rela- 
tion to other words in the same sentence. 

Q. What does the word nominative mean ? 

49. Nominative means naming, 

Q. When I say, ^' John strikes/' he evidently does something : what, then, 
may John be called ? 

50. An actor or doer. 

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading 
noun, in what case is John, when I say, "John strikes"? 

51. In the nominative case. 

Q. What, then, does the nominative case of nouns denote ? 

6^. The nominative case denotes the agent or doer. 

Q. When I say, '^ The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why? 

53. Dog is in the nominative case^ because it is the agent, 
actor, or doer. 

Q. " The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why ? 
Q. AVhen I ss^y, "Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here 
which Thomas is pursuing ? 

54. Thief. 

Q. What does the word ohjective mean? 

55. It means belonging to the object 

Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, " Thomas 
pursues the thief"? 

56. In the objective case. 

Q. What, then, does the objective case of nouns denote? 

57. The objective case denotes the object. 

Q. When I say, "William whips John," in what case is John, and why? 

58. In the objective case, because John is the object. 

Q. What does the word possess /ve imply? 

59. Possession y ownership^ property ^ etc. 

Q. When I say, "It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the 
slate: in what cnse, then, shall we reckon John's? 

60. In the possessive case. 

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote? 

61. The possessive case denotes possession, property, 
etc. 

Q. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife ? 
Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why? 

62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the 
knife. 

Q. In the example, " John's slate," you perceive tha.t John's ends in s, with 
a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the s, called in grammar? 

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, an 
apostrophic s, 

Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the 
singular number usually form their possessive case? 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s 
following it. 

Q. ^^ On eagles' wings." Here eagles' is plural, and in the possessive case: 
how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 

65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addi- 
tion of s, 

Q. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, ^^ men's concerns/' how 
is the possessive case formed? 

66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. 

Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to 
have, and what are th.Qy ? 

67. Three — the nominative^ the possessive^ and the ob- 
jective. 

Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word: what, then, 
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 

68. To tell its different cases or endings. 

Q. Will you decline John f 

69. Nominative case, John. 
Possessive case, John's. 
Objective case, John. 

Q. Will you decline boy, in both numbers ? 

Singular, Plural, 

70. Nom. Boy. Nom, Boys. 

Poss. Boy's. Poss, Boys'. 

Ohj. Boy. Obj. Boys, 

Q. When I say, "William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat follows 
William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ? 

71. By coat, because it follows William^ s, 

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive 
case? 

RULE I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following 

noun. 

Q. " AVilliam's hat." Is William's a proper or a common noun? Why ? (36.)-'' 
Q. What is its person ? why? (45.)''' Its number? why? (8,)"* Its gen- 
der? why? (17.)* Its case? why? (61. )'^- What noun follows William's f 
What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rule ? 

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in 
sentences, in the same manner as we have mentioned those of William's, 
above, what is the exercise called ? 

72. Parsing. 

EXEKCISES IN PARSING. 

''John'' 8 'knife,'''' 

tS. JoTitVs is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be- 
cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the 
name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of — singular 

* Refer back to this number. 



ARTICLES. 13 

NUMBER ; it means but one — possessive case ; it implies 
possession — and it is governed by the noun knifes accord- 
ing to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third 
PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one. 

^^^Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the noun is 
80 familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in the book. He 
may then take the following exercises, lohich are to be parsed in a similar manner, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

^' Peter's cap.'' '' Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife." 
" John's slate." '' Father's house." '' Boys' hats." 



VII, OF ARTICLES. 

Q. When I say, " Give me a book," I evidently mean no particular book ; 
but when I say, *^ Give me the book," what do I mean ? 

74. Some particular book. 

Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning ? 

75. A and the. 

Q. AYhat are these little words called ? 

76. Articles. • 

Q. What, then, are articles ? 

77. Articles are Avords placed before nouns to limit their 
meaning. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word definite f 

78. Definite means particular. 

Q. "Give me the book.'' Here a particular book is referred to: what 
kind of article, then, shall we call the article the ^ 

79. A definite article. 

Q. What, then, is a definite article ? 

80. It points out what particular thing or things are 
meant. 

Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not : what, 
then, will indefinite mean ? 

81. Not definite. 

Q. When I say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant : what 
kind of article, then, may a be called ? 

82. An indefinite article. 

Q. Why is it so called? 

83. Because it is not used before the name of any partic- 
ular person or thing. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. We say, " an apple," ^' an inkstand/' etc., in preference to ^' a apple/' 
^' a inkstand," etc. : why is this ? 

84. Because it is easier to speak^ and also more pleasant 
to the ear. 

Q. What kind of letters do apple and inkstand begin witli ? 

85. Vowels. 

Q. In what cases do we use an instead of a ? 

86. Before words beginning with the vowels a^ e^ i, o, u. 

Q. In speaking, we say, "a man," not " aji man:" when, then, do we 
use a ? 

87. Before words beginning with consonants. 

Q. Which letters are consonants ? 

88. All the letters of the alphabet^ except the vowels, 
which are a, Cy i^ o, u; and also w and y, except at the 
beginning of words, when they are consonants. 

Q. How, then, do a and an differ? 

89. Only in their use; a being used before consonants, 
and an before vowels : both are called by the same name. 

Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

90. Two — a or an, and the. 

Q. It is customary to say, ^^a boy," not "a boys/' also, ^^ an inkstand/' 
not "an inkstands :" of what number, then, must the noun be, before which 
the indefinite article is placed ? 

91. The singular number. 

Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article ? 
RULE II. 

The indefinite article A or an belongs to nouns of 
the singular number. 

Q. We can say, ^^the boy," and "the boys," using a noun of either the 
singular or the plural number after the : what, then, is the rule for the definite 
article ? 

RULE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or the plural number. 

EXERCISES IN PAESING. 

''The hoy:' 

92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to 
limit their meaning — definite ; it refers to a particular boy 
— and belongs to hoy, according to 

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or the plural number. 

Boy is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third 
person; it is spoken of — and singular number; it means 
but one. 



ADJECTIVES. 15 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

''A hand.'' ^' An eagle." '^ The man.'' ^^ The boys' hats." 

''A man." ^'An insect." ^^The men." -'A man's cap." 

"A mite." ''An acorn." ''The boys." "The girls' room." 

"A month." "An ouuce." "The mice." "The lady's box." 



VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Q. When I saj% ^' John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy,*' I use 
certain words to describe hoy : which are they ? 

93. Industrious^ obedient, and good. 

Q. When I say, "• a good man," to what word is the describing word good 
joined or added ? 

94. To the noun man, 

Q. What does the word adjective mean ? 

95. Joined or added to, 

Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as goody obedient, in- 
dustrious , etc. ? 

96. Adjectives. 

Q. What, then, are adjectives ? 

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns or pronouns to 
describe or qualify them. 

Q. ^' A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why? 
Q. "Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus 
and James spoken of here? 

98. In comparison with each other. 

Q. The adjectives in the last' example are good and better : can you tell me 
which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the other? 

99. The word better. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call better? 

100. Of the comparative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply? 

101. A comparison between two. 

Q. "William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in 
school." What is meant here by tallest? 

102. Exceeding all in height. 

Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 

103. Exceeding all; the highest or loicest degree. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest ? 

104. Of the superlative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the highest or 
lowest degree. 

Q. When I say, "James is a good boy," I make no comparison between 
him and any other; but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a 
good boy. A\''hat kind of sentence, then, would you call this ? 

106. A positive sentence. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call goodf 

107. Of the positive degree. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What, then, does the positive degree do ? 

108. It merely describes^ without any comparison. 

Q. Will you compare great? 

109. '^Pos, great; Comp, greater; Sup, greatest.^^ 

Q. Will you compare loise in the same manner ? 

Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the compara- 
tive and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed? 

110. By adding r or er^ st or est, to the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare swiaZ^/ high F mean? 
Q. Will you compare heautifulf 

111. ''Pos. beautiful; Comp, more beautiful; Sup, most 
beautiful.^^ 

Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful? 

112. Three. 

Q. How, then, are words of more syllables than one usually compared? 

113. By placing more and most before the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare industrious ? ingenious? dutiful? 
Q. Will you compare wise by using the words less and least ? 

114. "Pos, wise; Comp, less wise; Sup, least wise.^' 

Q. Will you in like manner compare 5e?^e?;oZ€«if .^ distinguished? dilatory? 
Q. " Good men, better men, best men.'^ Which adjective here is the posi- 
tive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which the 
superlative? why? (105.) 

Q. Good, you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beautiful, etc. ; 
and since there are many words of this description, I will give you a list of 
the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you repeat 
the comparative and superlative degrees, as I name the positive ? 
115. Positive. Comparative. Superlcutim. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Much, or many. More, . Most. 

Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Vf orst. 

iN'ear, Nearer, Nearest, or next. 

Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest. 

Late, Later, Latest, or last, 

Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there appear 
to be, and what are they ? 

116. Three — the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
lative. 

Q. Adjectives, you reeoileet, describe nouns or pronouns : to what, then, 
do they naturally belong ? 

RULE IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns or proiiouns which 
they describe, 

EXERCISES IN PARSmG, 

''A imser child. ^ ■ 

117. A IS an auticle, a word plaeed before nouns to limit 
their meaning — ^indefinite ; it means no particular child — 
and belongs to child, according to 

Rule II, The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns 
of the singular number. 



PRONOUNS. 17 

Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to de- 
scribe it — '' Fos. wise ; Comp. wiser ; Sup. wisest'' — in the 
COMPARATIVE DEGREE — and belongs to child, according to 

Rule IY. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns 
which they describe. 

Child is a noun, it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — common gender ; it may be either male or female — 
THIRD person; it is spoken of — and singular number; it 
means but one. 

exercises in parsing continued. 

1. 2. 3. 

'' A dutiful son." " An ugly child." " The base man." 
"■ An idle boy." " An irksome task." " The whiter cloth." 
'' A foolish son." '^ A mild reply." '^ The milder weather." 

4. 5. 

" The greatest man." "The more (1) benevolent citizen." 

'' The wisest prince." '' The most (1) suitable method." 

" The noblest man." " The least (1) distrustful friend." 

6. ^ 7. 

"A large, convenient, and (1) '' The last choice." 

airy habitation." ''The best man." 

*'The intelligent, industrious, ''The nearest relations." 

obedient, and (1) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary." 
scholar." " Murray's small grammar." , 



IX. OF PRONOUJ^S. 

Q. When I say, "John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will 
excel," how can I speak so as to avoid repeating John so often? 

118. By using the word he in its place; thus^ "John 
goes to school, he learns fast, and he will excel.^^ 

Q. What little word, then, may stand for John ? 

119. He. 

Q. What does the word pronoun mean ? 

120. Standing for y or instead of a noun. 

Q. What, then, shall we call the word he, above? 

121. A PROxouN. 

Q. What, then, is a pronoun ? 

122. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid a 
repetition of the same word. 

Q. When James says, "I will study," you perceive that /stands for the 
person speaking: what person, then, is it? (39.) 

Q. When I say, *' James, you must study," the word ^ou evidently is ap- 
plied to James, who is spoken to: what person, then, ought you to be? 

123. The second person. 

I. To be omitted in parsing. 2, Johnson's is governed by dictionary, by Rule I. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. When I say, " He (meaning William) should learn/^ what person 

ought he to be, and why ? 

124. The third person ; because it stands in the place of 
a noun which is spoken of. 

Q. If 7 invariably stands for the first person, you for the second, and he 
for the third, how can we tell the difi'erent persons of pronouns ? 

125. By the pronouns themselves. 

Q. What have these pronouns been called from this circumstance ? 

126. Personal pronouns. 

^^^ I will now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which you 
must first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as may 
be asked you. 

DECLENSION OF THE PEESONAL PEONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. 
127. Sing. Plur. 

Nom, I. We. 

Foss, My or mine. Ours or our. 

Ohj. Me. Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Sing, Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Thou. ^ ( Nom. You. Ye or you. 

Poss. Thy or thine, y or I Foss. Your or yours. Your or yours. 
Obj. Thee J (Obj. You. You. 

THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. He. They. 

Poss. His. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Him. Them. 

THIRD PERSON FEMININE. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. She. They. 

Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Her. Them. 

THIRD PERSON NEUTER. 
Sing. Plur. 

. Nom. It. They. 

Poss. Its. Theirs or their. 

Obj. It. Them. 

Q. Will you decline /in both numbers? thou or you f he? she? it? 

Q. In what person, number, and case is J ? ive? my? mine? our or ours? 
me? us? thou? ye? his? they? them? 

Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he? she? it? his? hers? 
her ? him ? 

Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they? 

128. Two — the singular and the plural. 

Q. How many cases, and what are they ? 

129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 



PRONOUNS. 19 

Q. How many persons? 

130. Three — the first, the second, and the third. 

Q. How many genders ? 

131. Three — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person ? 
Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third ? 
Q. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading pro- 
nouns: how many of these are there? 

133. Five — /, thou or you, he, she, it 

Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and 
plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the 
leading pronouns? 

134. Because they are all considered as variations of the 
nominative singular. 

Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender? 

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre- 
sent a difi'erent gender ? 

136. The first and second persons being always present, 
their genders are supposed to be known. 

Q. It, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, 
and person ought they to have ? 

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 

Q. AVhat, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- 
nouns ? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number^ and person. 

QUESTIONS ON PAESING. 

Q. How many diff"erent sorts of words have we now found, and what 
are they ? 

138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, 
and the Pkonoun. 

Q, The word part, you know, means division ; and sjjeech, the power of 
using words, or language ; what, therefore, shall we call these grand divi- 
sions of words? 

139. Parts of Speech. 

Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech hoy is, for instance, what 
do 3'ou understand me to mean? 

140. The same a^ to ask me whether boy is a noun or not. 

Q. What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.) 

1. '^He went to school.'' 

2. ''She went to her task." 

3. ''William went to his play." 

4. "John returned from his school." 

5. " I request you to mind your studies." 

6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours." 

Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples? 
Q. How many are there in all? 

Q. What are the gender, number, and person of the pronoun in the first 
example ? second ? third ? fourth ? fifth ? sixth ? 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What is the gender of his, in the fourth sentence? why? (137.) Its 
number? why? (137.) Its person ? why? (137.) Its case ? why? (61.) 

Q. Will you name the nouns in the first sentence? in the second^ third'' 
fourth? fifth? sixth? 



X. OP THE VERB. 

Q. When I say, ^^ James strikes William/' which word tells what James 
does? 

141. Strikes. 

Q. The word verb means word ; and as the words in all sentences, which 
tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be 
called ? 

142. Verbs. 

Q. If, in the phrase, "William strikes James," we leave out the word 
strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed: what reason, then, 
can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a dif- 
ferent name ? 

143. The words which we call verbs are the most im- 
portant. 

Q. *' William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and 
why ? 

144. Studies J because it tells what William does. 

Q. When I say, '^ John dances," which word is the verb, and why? 
Q. When I say, "' James strikes John," which word shows that an action 
is performed ? 

145. Strikes. 

Q. What kind of verb, then, shall we call strikes ? 

146. An active verb. 

Q. What kind of verb is walks, in this sentence, "John walks," and 
why ? 

147. Walks is an active verb^ because it expresses action. 

Q. " He beat William." Which word here is the verb ? Is William an 
agent or an object? 

148. An object. 

Q. When I say, " The child walks," walks, it is true, is an active verb, 
but it has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above; 
neither can we supply one; for we cannot say, "The child walks" any 
thing : what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the 
nature of active verbs ? 

149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them 
for objects, and others will not. 

Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means passing 
over ; and when I say, " William whips Charles," the verb ivhi2Js shows that 
the action which William performs, joas-^es over to Charles as the object. What 
kind of verb, then, shall we call whips? 

150. An active-transitive verb. 

Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ? 

151. It is one that either has, or may have, an object 
after it. 

Q. Walks, we found, would not take an object after it; and, as intransitive 
means not passing over, what shall we call such verbs as walks? 



VERBS. 21 

152. Active-intransitive verbs. 

Q. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 

153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses 
action, but will not take an object after it. 

Q. When I say, '^He eats it/' "• He beats him/' we immediately determine 
that heats and cats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after them; how, 
then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished? 

154. When w^e can place him or it after any active verb, 
and make sense, it is transitive ; otherwise, it is intransitive. 

Q. '^ James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which words 
are the verbs here ? 

155. Remains, sleeps, and is, 

Q. These verbs do not imply action, like strikes, heats, etc. : what do they 
imply? 

156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. 

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter 
(signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor 
passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a pas- 
sive verb. It is suflBcient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason 
of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or 
existence in a certain state. 

Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct definition 
of a verb ? 

158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. 

Q. When I say, " I strike," of what number and person is strike, and why ? 

159. Strike is of the first person singular, because its 
agent, 1, is of this person and number. 

Q. Hence you may perceive that verbs, in themselves considered, do not 
have person and number: why, then, are they said to have these properties 
at all ? 

160. On account of the connection which they have with 
their agents or nominatives. 

Q. AVe say, ^' I write," and •' He writes /* hence you perceive that the end- 
ing of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, will bd 
the rule for the nominative case ? 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number 
and person. 

Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in what 
respect must the verb agree with its nominative case? 

RULE VIL 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Q. When I say, "James beats him," the pronoun him is the object of the 
action denoted by heats, and is, therefore, in the objective case : what, then, 
will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? 

RULE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb lovcy in its differ- 
ent numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ? 

Singular. Plural. 

161. First person J I love. First person, We love. 
Second person^Y on love. Second per son, Yow love. 
Third person, He loves. Third person, They love. 

Q. Will you repeat the variations of am? 

Singular. Plural. 

162. 1 pers. I am. 1 pers. We are. 
2pers. You are. 2 pers. You are. 
3 pers. He is. 3 pers. They are. 

Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of hate f desire 1 
read ? 

EXEKCISES IN PAESING. 

''J studjy my lesson. ^"^ 

163. /is a PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun— per- 
sonal ; it always denotes the same person (the first) — eirst 
PERSON ; it denotes the speaker — singular number ; it means 
but one — ^^Nom. I'' — in the nominative case to study, 
according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in niim- 
ber and person. 

Study is a verb; it expresses action — transitive; it 
admits an object after it — '' 1 Pers. I study" — in the first 
person — singular number, because its nominative I, with 
which it agrees, is, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- 
sonal; it always represents the same person — first person; 
it represents the person speaking — ^' Nam, I, Poss. my, or 
mine" — in the possessive case — and governed by the noun 
lesson, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neuter 
gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; it is 
spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the 
objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and gov- 
erned by it, according to 

Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 

case. 

exercises in parsing continued. 

Transitive Verbs. 
'^I lament my fate.'^ " He found a dollar." 

*' You regard your friends.'' " She attends the school." 

" We desire your improvement." " It retards the work.'' 

*' We love our children." " They shun vice." 

*' You make a knife." " Ye derive comfort." 



VERBS. 23 

2. 

" I love him." ^' She forsook you.'' 

" I lament her." " They annoy me." 

" You assist them." " We took it." 

" He struck her." '' She relieved us." 

'^John reads his hook.'''' 
His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- 
sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine 

GENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, becaUSe the nOUn 

John, with which it agrees, is, according to 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number, and person. 

'^Nom. he ; Poss. his" — in the possessive case — and gov- 
erned by the noun hook, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

4®=" The remaining words, booJc, reads, and John, are parsed as before. 

exercises in parsing continued. 

3. 

" Mary studies her lesson." '' Virtue rewards its followers." 

'^ The girls love their books." ^^ A disobedient son grieves his 

" Good children mind their parents." 

parents." *' The intemperate man loves his 

"Sin deceives its votaries." dram." 

i^=- In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for which 
they stand are expressed. 

Intransitive Verbs. 
4. 
" I walk." " You smile." " John swims." 

" James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly." 

" William hops." " We dance." "Lions roar." 

Neuter Verbs. 
" William is (1) discreet." (2) "John's wife is fortunate." 
" James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." 

" He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden." 

" He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." 

" Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient." 



XL mDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. 

Q. When James says, '' I will learn," he evidently means, by his manner 
of speaking, to express his intention to learn ,• but when he says, *^ I can 
learn/* what does he mean ? 

(1.) Is is a VERB ; it implies being — xeuter ; it is neither active nor pas- 
sive, but expresses being, merely — '' 1 ji:)er6f. I am; 2 pers. Yom are; Z pers. 
He, or William is" — in the third person singular, because William, its 
nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to 

Rule VII. A verb niust agree with its nominative case in number and person, 

(2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

165. That he has the ability to learn. 

Q, What does the word mood mean ? 

166. Mood means manner, 

Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ? 

167. The different manner of representing actions. 

Q. What does the word indicative mean ? 

168. Declaring or showing, 

Q. When I say, " William has studied," I declare some fact : in what moodj 
then, shall we class has studied f 

169. In the indicative mood. 

Q. When I say, " Has William studied ?" the only difference between this 
phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, to 
show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call has studied f 

1 70. Indicative mood. 

Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting^ indi- 
cating^ or declaring a things or for asking a question. 

Q. In what mood is "■ They do sing" ? Why? (171.) 
Q. What does the word tense mean ? 

172. Tense means time, 

Q. What diOQB present mean? 

173. Present means now, 

Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now : in 
what tense, then, is shigs? 

174. In the present tense. 

Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 

175. The present tense is used to express Avhat is now 
taking place. 

Q. In what tense is " The dog runs" ? Why ? (175.) 

Q. "James wrote." "James has written." These phrases denote what 
is past : in what tense are they ? 

176. In the past tense. 

Q. "What does the i^ordi future mean ,• as, "At some future time"? 

177. Future means yet to come, 

Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come" ? 

178. In the future tense. 

Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what 
are they ? 

179. Three — the present^ the past^ and the future. 

Q. When I say, "John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and finished? 

180. It is. 

Q. What does 2W_^e77'ec^ mean? 

181. Unfinished^ or incomplete, 

Q. "John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action unfin- 
ished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in Latin 
the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English gramma- 
rians to denote action past and finished ; a term not altogether significant of 
an action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ? 

182. The imperfect tense expresses w^hat took place in 
past time^ however distant. 

Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of 



VERBS. 25 

writing are past and finished; but which has more immediate reference to 
the present time? 

183. Has written. 

Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called 
it the perfect tense : what, then, will the perfect tense express ? 

184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, 
and also conveys an allusion to the present time. 

Q. "James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and 
finished ; but which took place first ? 

185. The act of reading. 

Q. What does the word pluperfect mean ? 

186. 3Iore than the perfect. 

Q. What tense, then, shall we call "James had read'' 7 

187. The pluperfect tense. 

Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express? 

188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken 
place at or before some past time mentioned. > 

Q. ''John will como." This, you know, was called the future tense: can 
you tell me why ? 

189. Because it implies time to come. 

Q. What, then, does the future tense express ? 

190. The future tense expresses what will take place 
hereafter. 

Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon/* Here, an action is to take 
place at a future time specified or mentioned; and since we already have one 
future tense, we will call that the first future tense, a.nd this the second future 
tense : what, then, does the second future tense express ? 

191. The second future tense expresses what will have 
taken place at or before some future time mentioned. 

Q. What does synopsis mean ? 

1 92. A concise and general view. 

Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the difi'erent tenses, 
illustrated by the verb learu : will you repeat it 2 

SYNOPSIS. 

193. Pres. tense^ 1 learn, or do learn. 
Im]p. tense J I learned, or did learn, 
Ferf. tense J I have learned. 
Pkq). tense J I had learned. 
1st Put. tense, I shall or will learn. 
2d Fat, tense^ I shall have learned. 
J^^ You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing rerb, m 
each tense of the indicative mood r these I wish you to study very carefully, 
that you may be able to answer the questions whieh will then be asked you. 

194. To learn. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. ')/ 



TKESEI^T TE:N-SE. 
Singuhr. FturaL 

1 Pers. I learn. 1 Pers. We learn. 

2 Pers, You learn. 2 Pers. You learn. 

3 Pers. He, she^ or it learns. S Pers. They learn. 

3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OR, 

When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus- 





Singular. 


Plural, 


1. 


I do learn. 


1. We do learn. 


2. 


You do learn. 


2. You do learn. 


3. 


He does learn. 


3. They do learn. 
IMPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1. 


I learned. 


1. We learned. 


2. 


You learned. 


2. You learned. 


3. 


He learned. 


3. They learned. 
OR, 




Singular, 


Plural, 


1. 


I did learn. 


1. We did learn. 


2. 


You did learn. 


2. You did learn. 


3. 


Pie did learn. 


3. They did learn. 
PERFECT TENSE. 




Si'figular, 


Plural, 


1. 


I have learned. 


1. We have learned. 


2. 


You have learned. 


2. You have learned. 


3. 


He has learned. 


3. They have learned. 
PLUPERFECT TENSE. 




Singular, 


Plural, 


1. 


I had learned. 


1. We had learned. 


2. 


You had learned. 


2. You had learned. 


3. 


He had learned. 


3. They had learned. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular, Plural, 

L I shall or will learn. 1. We shall or will learn. 

2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 

3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned. 

2. You will have learned. 2. You will have learned. 

3. He will have learned. 3. They will have learned. 

'•'V^- For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singu- 
lar, as given in former treatises^ the following synopsis is inserted. 

SYNOPSIS. 
195. 2d Pers. Sing, Pres, Thou learnest, or dost learn. 

2d Pers, Sing. Imp, Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 

2d Pers. Siiig. Perf, Thou hast learned. 

2d Pers, Sing, Plup. Thou hadst learned. / 

2d Pers. Sing, 1st Fut, Thou shalt or wilt learn.)\ 
2d Pers. Sing. 2d Fut. Thou wilt have learned. 
Q. In what mood is "Ilearn"? Why? (171.) In what tense? Why? 
(175.) In what mood and tense is "He learns"? "We learn"? "I did 
learn"? "I have learned"? "I had learned"? "I shall or will learn"? 
^^ I shall have learned" ? 

Q. In what person and number is " I learn" ? " You learn" ? " We 
learn" ? " They had learned" ? " He shall learn" ? " We had learned" ? 
Q. What does the word auxiliary mean ? 

196. Auxiliary means helping. 



VERBS. 27 

Q. In the phrase, "I will sing," icitt, jou perceive, is used to help form 
the future tense of siiuf : icill is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the 
verb sinfj is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ? 

197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which are 
formed the dilferent tenses^ moods, etc., of the principal verbs. 

Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the 
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself: 
what, then, is the sign of the second future? 

198. Shall have or will have. 

Q. What is the sign of the first future? 

199. Shall or icilL 

Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect? 

200. Had. 

Q. What is the sisn of the perfect? 

201. Have. 

Q. What is the sign of the imperfect? 

202. Did. 

Q. We can say, "I did strike yesterday," or, ^^I struck yesterday :" how, 
then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign didf 

203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and make 
sense, it is in the imperfect tense. 

Q. What is the sign of the j^resent tense? 

204. Do^ or the first form of the verb. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear 
to hive, and what are they? 

205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
pluperfect, the first future, and the second future. 

EXEKCISES IX PAEsrxa. 

'^They have arTived.,'''' 

206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
PERSONAL ; it alv>^ays represents the same person — third per- 
son ; it denotes the persons spoken of — plural; it means more 
than one — "Xom. he; Foss. his; ObJ. him. Plural. Xom. they^^ 
— in the nominative case to have arrived, according to 

Rule VL The nominative case governs the verb in iium- 
her and person. 

Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or be- 
ing — active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not 
admit of to object — indicative mood; it simply indicates or 
declares a thing — psrfect tense; it expresses what has just 
taken place — '' 1. I have arrived ; 2. You have arrived ; 3. He 
has arrived. Plural, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have 
arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — in the third person plu- 
ral, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it, ac- 
cording to 

Rule TIL A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

1. 
" They had come." " The sun has risen/' 

" We did go." '' Dogs will fight." 

*' The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 

2. 
*' James loves William." " Columbus discovered America." 

*' Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." 

" I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson." 

*' She had beaten us." *' John did make great progress." 

*' You shall assist him." " They do study their lessons." 

" It did disturb me." '^ Boys love sport." 

B. 
'' Do I disturb you V '' Shall I expect your assist- 

*' Did they learn their lessons?" ance?" 

" Have they recited?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit 

*'Does the instructor teach us?" such (1) acts?" 

'' Had he dismissed him ?" " Have you found your knife ?" 



w 



XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Q, What does ** He may write** imply? 

207. Permission or liberty to write. 

Q. What does "He must write" imply? 

208. Necessity of writing. 

Q. What does ^' He can write" imply ? 

209. Power or ability to write. 

Q. What does ** He should write" imply? 

210. Duty or obligation to write. 

Q. AVhat does ^' He would write" imply ? 

211. Will or inclination to write. 

Q. What does the word potential mean? 

212. Able, OY jjoiverfuL 

Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, and, 
also, must write, should icrite, etc.? 

213. In the potential mood. 

Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered 
to be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that 
form of the verb which implies power? 

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and almost 
indefinite extent. 

Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply ? 

215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, obligation, or necessity. 

Q. What are the signs of this mood? 

216. JfixT/, can, musty might , could , would , and should. 

Q. What does the word conjugation mean ? 



(1.) Adjective. 



VERBS. 29 

217. Uniting, combining, ov joining together, 

Q. You recollect thnt, in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with 
it; hence, this exercise is called conjugation : what, then, do you understand 
by the conjugation of a verb ? 

218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its several moods^ tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. 

2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 

3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

learn. should learn. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 07' should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have learned. should have learned 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

220. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. 

Pres, Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. 

Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. 

Pe7f, Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. 

Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned. 

Q. In what mood is " I may learn" ? Why ? (215.) 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with IF thou f he f we ? ye ? you ? they f 

Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person is '^ I can learn"? "You 
may learn" ? " You might assist" ? " They could have learned" ? " He 
must study" ? 

Q. In what mood and tense is " I have learned" ? " He shall run" ? 
*•' William did sing"? 

Q. Will you conjugate learn in the present tense, potential mood ? Will 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

you conjugate lot^e in the same mood, and imperfect tense? Strike, in the 
perfect tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense? 
Q. liow many tenses has the potential mood ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
"JTe muy return,^ ^ 

221. He is a -pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
PERSONAL ; it invariably represents the same person — mascu- 
line GENDER ; it represents a male — third person ; it denotes 
the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies but one 
— and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent — " Nom. 
Tie" — in the nominative case to may return, according to 

Rule VI. TJie nominative case governs the verb in num- 
her and person. 

May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — active ; 
it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit an object 
after it — potential mood ; it implies possibility, liberty, etc. 
—PRESENT tense ; it denotes w^hat maybe now — '' 1. I may 
or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 3. He may or can 
return" — in the third person singular, because its nomina- 
tive he, with which it agrees, is, according to 

Rule YII. A verb must agree with its nominative case 
in number and person. 

exercises in parsing continued. 

1. 
"He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic." 

" He might retire." " The wind may have shaken the 

" John can assist me." trees." 

"William must obey his in- " The lady could have procured 

structor." her fan." 

" We m-ay have erred." "James may catch the thief." 

" John's father would go." " They might learn." 

2. 
" I do rejoice." " The committee will visit the 

" We do learn." school." 

" John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- 

" An industrious boy will be rich." erty. 



^r J? 



XIII. CONJUGATION" OF THE NEUTER YERB 

To be. 

222. When I say, " I am at home," you know that am is a verb, because it 
implies being or existence; and since to he means to exist, the verb am has 
been called the verb to he. 

223. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TEiq"SE. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. You are. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 



VERBS. 



31 



Singular. 

1 . I was. 

2. You were. 

3. He was. 

Singular, 

1. I have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 

Singular. 

1. I ha/J been. 

2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

PluroZ. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural, 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural, 

1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. Thev had been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. You shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 

2. You may^ can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 

3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 0?^ should 1. We might, could, would, or 

be. should be. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 0?' should 1. W"e might, could, would, or 

have been. should have been. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

3. He might, conld, Avould, or 3. They might, could, would, of 

should have been. should have been. 



Pres. 


Thou art. 


Imp. 


Thou wast. 


Perf. 


Thou hast been. 


Plup. 


Thou hadst been. 


IFut 


Thou shait or wilt 




be. 


2 Put 


Thou wilt have been. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular^ with ThotJo 
INDICATITE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 
Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst be. 
Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must 

have been. 
Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have been. 



XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. 

Q. Why is am a verb? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why 
is it so called? (222.) 

Q, AVill you give the synopsis of the verb to be with /through tlie indica- 
tive mood ? 

Q. Will you conjugate oM in the present indicative? Imperfect? Per- 
fect ? Pluperfect ? 1 st Future ? 2d Future ? Present potential ? Imperfect ? 
Perfect ? Pluperfect ? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person is "I am"? '^Am I"? ^^ You 
were"? ^^ I have been"? *' Have you been"? ^' He may or can be"? ^'We 
should be" ? '* He may have been" ? ^' They should have been" ? " Thou 
shouldst have been" ? " Thou mayst be" ? 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with thou ? 

EXEKCISES IN PARSING. 

"T/ie (jirls ii^ere industrious.^'^ 

225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter ; 
it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply being — 
INDICATIVE MOOD ; it simplj indicates or declares a thing — 
IMPERFECT tense; it cxprcsscs past time — '' 1. I was; 2. You 
were; 3. He was. Plur. 1. We were; 2. You were; 3. They 
were, or girls were" — in the third person plural, because 
its nominative girls, with which it agrees, is, according to 

Rule YII. A verb must agree luith its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to 
describe it — '' industrious, more industrious, most industrious" 
— in the positive degree ; it describes, without any compari- 
son — and belongs to the noun giils, according to 

Rule IY. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns 
which they describe. 

^^^ For the and girls, apply FtULES III. and VI. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" William is attentive." " Am I young ?" 

"John is studious.'' " Was I wrong?'' 

" We are jealous." " Have we been wicked ?" 

"Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent?" 



ADVERBS. 33 

" Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic." 
"The boys will have been dutiful." ''Columbus was enterprising." 
" Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick." 



XV. OF THE ADVERB. 

Q. When I say, '^ The bird flies swiftly/* I do not mean by swiftly to 
describe hird: what does swiftly describe? 

226. The manner of flying. 

Q. To what part of speech is swiftly joined in the phrase, " The bird flies 
swiftly" ? 

227. To the verb/ies. 

Q. What does the Word adverb signify ? 

228. Joined to a verb. 

Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly ? 

229. Adverbs. 

Q. '^ John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows how 
swiftly John runs? 

230. Very. 

Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or describe 
adverbs ? 

231. Adverbs. 

Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more 
and most called here, and why ? 

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjectives. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition 
of adverbs ? 

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs^ adjectives, and 
other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. 

Q. ^^ John visits me often, but Thomas oftener.'^ In this example, we see 
that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon f 

234. " Soon, sooner, soonest.'^ 

Q. Will you compare wisely ? 

235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely .^^ 

Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared ? 

236. By the adverbs moi^e and most. 

Q, Will you in this manner compare admirably f foolishly ? 

Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon 
above ; but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which 
is not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs 
variously compared : will you repeat the comparative and superlative of each, 
as I name the positive ? 

337. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Often, oftener, oftenest. 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

Justly, more justly, most justly. 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Justly, less justly, least justly? 

3adly, or ill, worse, worst. 

G ■ 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. Note. — Adverbs, though very mimerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few 
classes. You will now read with atteution the following list, and I will then ask yoii 
some questions respecting each class. 

1. Of number: as, "Once, twice, thrice," etc. 

2. Of m^der : as, "First, secondly, thirdly, fourth!}-, fifthly, lastly, finallj'," etc. 

3. Of place and direction: as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, 
nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, 
"whence, hence, thence, whithersoever," etc. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," etc. 

Of time past: as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, 
long ago," etc. 

Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by 
and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightway," etc. 

Of time indefinite: as, " Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, 
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," etc. 

6. Of quantity : as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abun- 
dantly," etc. 

6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," etc. 
Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by add- 
ing the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly : as, "Bad, 
badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt: as, "Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

^. Oi affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, 
surely, indeed, really," etc. 

9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," etc. 

10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," etc. 

11. Of comparison: as, "More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, 
almost, little, alike," etc. 

When a preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its applica- 
tion: as, when we say, "He rides about;"" "He was Tiear falling ;" "But do not after 
lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used 
instead of ai, on, etc. ; as, "Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat." 

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number? two of order? two of place? 
two of time present ? two of time past ? two of time to come ? two of time 
Indefinite? two of quantity? two of manner or quality? two of doubt? two 
of affirmation? two of negation? two of interrogation? two of comparison? 

Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : how, then, can you tell one 
from the other ? 

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe or 
qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. This fact should be remembered; you shall, therefore, have it in the 
form of a rule : will you repeat it ? 

RULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. From had we form the adverb badly : how, then, may a large class of 
adverbs be formed ? 

240. By adding ly to adjectives. 

Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? from great ? from 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

"T/ie hird sings sweetly,'''' 

241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the 
verb sings, according to 

Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

Sing, bird, and the are parsed as before. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



35 



EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

Adverbs qualifying verbs. 
*The soldiers marched slowly/' "They will return soon.'* 
' The girls sing delightfully." " The boys write admirably." 

'Henry improves rapidly." "Susan dances elegantly." 

Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 
' He was very attentive." " James is more studious." 

^ John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious." 

^ William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy." 

Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. 
* You learn grammar very well." " James writes most elegantly." 
'The boys write too fast." "I will assist you most cheer- 

' He will come much oftener." fully." 

Adverbs promiscuously used. 
' He has read once." " John is not happy." 

' I will first remind you." " Whither shall I fly ?" 

' I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the 

' I have eaten sufficiently." paper monthly." 



XYI. OP THE PREPOSITION 

Q. To say, " The cider is — cellar," would make no sense ; can you inform 
me what would make sense ? 

242. " The cider is in the cellar/^ 

Q. By placing the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen- 
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ? 

243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation 
between them. 

Q. What does the word prej^osition mean ? 

244. Something placed before. 

Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed 
before other words to connect them with words preceding ? 

245. Prepositions. 

Q. What, then, are prepositions ? 

246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and 
thereby show the relation between them. 

24 T. List of the principal Prepositions. 



Among 


at 


concerning 


near 


throughout 


around 


by 


down 


of 


touching 


amidst 


below 


except 


off 


up 


athwart 


between 


excepting 


on 


upon 


after 


beneath 


for 


over 


under 


about 


behind 


from 


out of 


underneath 


against 


betwixt 


in 


respecting 


unto 


across 


beside 


into 


to 


with 


above 


beyond 


instead of 


towards 


within 


according to 


before 


notwithstanding 


through 


without 


Q. Will y 


ou mention the 


prepositions beginning with a t 


with ht c? dt 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Will you now repeat all the prepositions ? 

Q. Do we say, " He works for I/' or, "He works for me" ? 

Q. In what case is me ? (127.) 

Q. What case, then, follows prepositions? 

248. The objective case. 

Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule: will you, 
therefore, repeat 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

^^ John found his hat in the road,'''^ 

249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect words, 
and show the relation between them ; it here shows the re- 
lation between hat and road. 

Boad is a noun ; it is a name — common; it is a general 
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third 
PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one 
— objective case ; it is the object of the relation denoted 
by the preposition in, and governed by it, according to 

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case.^ 

EXERCISES in PARSING CONTINUED. 

"John ran through the house "I will search the house dili- 

into the garden.'' gently for him." 

" We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson be- 

sorrow.'' fore them." 

"We came in season." "According to my impression, 

" You study grammar for your he is in fault." 

improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, 

" From virtue to vice the progress he was the delight of his ac- 

is gradual." quaintances." 

"They travelled into France ^^On all occasions she behaved 

through Italy." with propriety." 

" He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say 

" Without the aid of charity, he much." 

lived very comfortably by his " We may expect a calm after a 

industry." storm." 



XYII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. When I say, "John his book," the sense, you perceive, is incom- 
plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 

250. " John reads his book.^^ 

* The remaining words are parsed as before. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 37 

Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called? 

251. A sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 

252. A collection of words forming complete sense. 

Q. " Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell me 
what kind, and why ? 

253. It is a simple sentence^ because it makes sense^ and 
has but one nominative and one verb. 

Q. What does the term compound mean ? 

254. It means composed of tivo or more things, 

Q. "Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two sim- 
ple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ? 

255. A compound sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 

256. A compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences connected together. 

Q. What does the term conjunction signify ? 

257. Union, or joining together. 

Q. In the compound sentence, " John writes, and William learns," the 
simple sentences are joined together by the word and : what, then, may and 
be called ? 

258. A Conjunction. 

Q. " f he king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words 
and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out the words so con- 
nected ? 

259. King and queen. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the con- 
junction ? 

260. A conjunction is used to connect w^ords or sentences. 

Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean ? 

261. Five added to four make nine. 

Q. What, then, is implied by and f 

262. Addition. 

Q. When I say, ^' I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the con- 
junction if imply ? 

263. Condition or supposition. 

Q. What does the word cojnilative mean? 

264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. 

Q. And, if, etc., are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ? 

265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con- 
tinues a sentence by expressing an addition^ a supposition, 
a cause, etc. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class: will you 
repeat them ? 

266. ^^And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, 
since, then, that, therefore, w^herefore.'^ 

. Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come ; but 
when I say, *' James or John will come," what do I mean ? 

267. That either James or John — one or the other — will 
come. 

4 



38 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 

Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 

268. Disjoined. 

Q. What v/ord is it that expresses the disjoining ? 

269. Or. 

Q. What part of speech is or f 

270. A conjunction. 

Q. What does the word disjimctive mean ? 

271. Disjoining or separating, 

Q. What kind of conjunction, then, shall we call or ? 

272. A disjunctive conjunction. 

Q. *^ James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of the 
sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word hut separates 
these two clauses: what, then, does this word imply? 

273. Opposition of meaning. 

Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive con- 
junction? 

274. The disjunctive conjunction connects sentences^ by 
expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you 
repeat them ? 

275. " But^ than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither, 
nor, less, yet, notwithstanding.^^ 

Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions : how, 
then, can you tell the one from the other ? 

276. Prepositions show the relation between words, but 
conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause, or 
an opposition of meaning. 

Q. "He and she write/* In what case is he f she ? 

Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, and 
connected by the conjunction and : when, then, may nouns and pronouns be 
connected ? 

277. When they are in the same case. 

Q. "She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected? 

278. " She will sing and dance.^^ 

Q. In what mood and tense is " She will sing" ? 

Q. To say " She dance" is incorrect ; dance, then, in this example, can- 
not be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what " She will sing 
and dance" means, when fully expressed ? 

279. ^' She will sing and she will dance.^^ 

Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as loill sing : when, then, 
may verbs, in general, be connected ? 

280. When they are in the same mood and tense. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the use 
of conjunctions in connecting words ? 

RULE XI. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and 7iouns or pronouns of the 
same case. 



INTERJECTIONS. 39 

EXEBCISES IN PAKSING. 
'''John assists Ms father and mother.'''* 

281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect 
words or sentences — copulative; it connects fattier and 
mother, 

Mother is a noun ; it is a name— common ; it is a general 
name — feminine gender ; it is the name of a female — third 
person; it is spoken of — -singular number; it means but 
one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and is, therefore, 
in the objective case, and connected with father by the 
conjunction and, according to 

Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

"I will reward him and them at ^^Slie reads well, dances (3) ele- 

some future time." gantly, and plays admirably 

"We in vain (1) look for a path on the piano-forte.'' 

between virtue and vice." "Intemperancedestroys the mind 

" Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of 

ens its object." man." 

" In the morning of life, we ea- " You may read this sentence 

gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it." 

oftentimes meet (2) with sad " He has equal knowledge, but 

disappointments." inferior judgment." 

" A good scholar never mutters " John rises early in the morn- 

nor disobeys his instructor." ing, and pursues his studies." 



XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Q, When I exela.im, *^0h ! I bave ruined my friend," ^^ Alas ! I fear for 
life/* which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to ex- 
press passion or feeling? 

282. Oh! Alas! 

Q. What does interjection mean ? 

283. Something thrown between, 

Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh ! alas ! etc. ? 

284. I:n"terjectionSo 

Q. What, then, are interjections? 

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or, sudden feel- 
ings of the speaker, 

(1.) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an 
adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX. 

(2.) Meet agrees with ?pe understood, and is. therefore, connected with 
pursue by the conjunction but, according to Rule XI. 

(3.) Dances and plai/s both agree with «^e, understood, and are, therefore, 
eonnected, the former with reads, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI. 



40 e:nglish grammab. 

LIST OF INTEEJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, " O ! oh ! alas ! ah V^ 

2. Of wonder; as, ''Eeally! strange !'' 

3. Of calling ; as, "Halloo! ho! hem!" 

4. Of attention ; as, "Behold! lo! hark!" 

5. Of disgust ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !" 

6. Of silence ; as, "Hush! hist!" 
7c Of contempt; as, "Pish! tush!" 

8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail!" 

Q. Will you examiDe the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of 
grief? One. of wonder? One of calling? One of attention? One of dis- 
gust? One of silence? One of saluting ? 

Q. How may an interjection generally be known ? 

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it. 

EXEKCISES IN PAESING. 

''O/i/ I have alienated my friend."^ ^ 

28Y. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas- 
sion or feeling. 

J^^ The remaining words are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Oh ! T must go and see (1) my " Strange ! I did not know 
dearfatherbefore(2)hedies." you." 

" We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, " Hush ! our instructor is at the 
alas ! we often mistake the door." 

road to its (3) enjoyment." *' Fy ! how angry he is I" 

(1.) The sense is, '^I must go, and I must see,-^' the verb see, then, 
agrees with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go, accord- 
ing to Rule XI. 

(2.) Before, an adverb. 

(3.) Apply, first, Rule V,; then. Rule I. 



EECAPITULATION'. 



CRITICAL REMARKS. 

COMPOSITION. 

XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the 
English language correctly. 

289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 

290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 



XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature 
and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words cor- 
rectly. This part of grammar is usually learned from 
spelling-books and dictionaries. 

292. Orthography means loord-makingj or spelling. 



XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 

293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words 
in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, 
commonly called Parts of Speech. 

294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of 
words — also their different changes and derivations. 

295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. 

XIX. What does English grammar How is a knowledge of orthography 
teach? 288. usually obtained? 291. 

Into how many parts is it divided ? 289. What does orthography mean ? 292, 

What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293. 

XX. What does orthography include and What does it include? 294. 
teach? 291. What does the word signify? 295. 

4* (41) 



42 EJs^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

XXII. OF SYNTAX. 

- 296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into 
sentences correctly. 

297. It includes a knowledge of the riles of composi- 
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and 
speakers. 

298. Syntax signifies arranging or placing together ; or, as used in gram- 
mar, sentence-making. 



XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 

299. The words of the English language are usually 
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, 
namely. 

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, 

Article, Yerb, Conjunction, 

Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. 



XXIY. OF NOUNS. 

800. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, man, London, knife. 

301. Nouns are of two kiuds, proper and common. 
Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names 

common to all individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, house, 
city, river, 

302. Proper nouns are particular names; that is, they 
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or 
sort; as, George, Boston, Mississippi. 

303. V/hen proper names have an article placed before them, they are used 
as common names; as, "He is the Cicero of his age." 

304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun; 

XXII. What does syntax teach? 296, What does the word common mean? 
What does it include ? 297. 31. 

What does the word signify? 298. What is a common noun ? 301. Give an 

XXIII. How many different sorts of example. 

words are there ? 299. What does proper mean? 34. 

What are they? 299. What is a proper noun? 302. Give an 

What are these sorts of words commonly example, 

called? 299. When proper nouns have an article he- 

XXIV. What does the word noun fore them, how are they used? 303. Give 
mean?* an example. 

What is a noun? 3(K3. Gire an exam- Are proper names used as such in the 

pie. plural ? 304. 

How many different kinds of nouns are Whv cannot proper names have a plu- 

there, and what are they? 301. ral ? 304. 

* See I., 1st answer. 



NOUNS. 43 

as, " The twelve Csesars," or, ^' The seven Jameses." This is obvious from the 
fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object only, and, 
therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Spaniard, European^ 
American, etc., are common nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards, Euro- 
peans, Americans, etc.-'- 

305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi- 
tion of articles or pronouns; as, ^< The hoy is studious;" <*That girl is 
discreet." 

306. When a noun, though singular in form, signifies many, it is called a 
noun of multitude, or a collective noun ; as, " The people," " The army." 

307. Abstract signifies fo^'e?i/rom ; hence an abstract noun is the name of 
a quality abstracted from its substance; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, etc. 

308. To nouns belong person^ gender, number, and case. 



XXY. PEHSOlSr. 

309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own 
name, it is the first person ; as, '^ I, James, of the city of 
Boston, do give," etc. 

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second 
person; as, ^^ James, come to me." 

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or 
about, is the third person ; as, '^ James has come." 



XXVI. GEXDER. 

312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

313. Xouns have four genders— the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; 
as, man, hoy, etc. 

315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females ; 
as, woman, girl. 

What do they become when so used ? When is a noun of the second person ? 

804. Give an example. 810. Give an example. 

What kind of nouns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person? 

American!^, Spaniards? 304. 311. Give an example. 

What effect does the use of articles have XXYI. What does the word gender 

on common nouDS? 305. mean? 1-4. 

What is a noun of multitude, or a collec- What is gender as applied to nouns ? 312. 

tive noun? 306. Give an example. What does the word wascuZme mean? 15. 

What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give What does the masculine gender of 

an example. nouns denote ? 314. Give an example. 

What belong to nouns? 308. What 6.oes feminine mean ? 19. 

XXV. When is a noun of the first per- What does the feminine gender denote? 

son? 309. Give an example. 315. Give an example. 

* Spain is the proper name of a country, and Spaniard has, by some grammarians, been 
called the proper name of a people : but the latter is a generic term, characterizing any one 
of a great number of persons, by their connection with S^oXn.—EncyclopcBdia. 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



316. The common gender denotes the names of such ani- 
mals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird, 

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects 
which are neither males nor females ; as, chair , table. » 

318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called, 
become masculine or feminine; as when we say of the sun, '^ He is setting,*' 
and of a ship, " She sails well," etc. 

319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz.: 

319-1. By different words ; as, 



Male, 


Female. 


Male. 


Female, 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Bull, 


Cow. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Bullock or ) 
Steer, J 


Heifer. 


Milter, 
Nephew, 


Spawner. 
Niece. 


Cock, 


Hen. 


Ram, 


Ewe. 


Dog, 


Bitch. 


Singer, 


1 Songstress or 
\ Singer. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Sir, 


Madam. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Eriar, 


Nun. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Hart, 


Roe. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 




819-3. Byadifferencf 


J of termination ; 


as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 


God, 


Goddess, 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Hunter, 


Huntress. 


Bridegroom, 


Bride. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Instructor, 


Instructress. 


Chanter, 


Chan tress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 



What does the common gender denote ? 
316. Give an example. 

What does Tigziier mean? 23. 

What does the neuter gender denote? 
817. Give an example. 

What is said of nouns naturally neuter, 
in respect to gender? 318. Give an ex- 
ample. 

How many genders do nouns have, and 
what are they ? 30. 

How many methods are there in English 
of distinguishing sex? 319. 

Which is the first ; as, hoy ? girl? 319-1. 

Will you spell the feminine correspond- 
ing to brother f 319-1; to boyf nephew? 



wizard ? friar ? sir 9 drahe ? earl f gander f 
hartf king? lad f man? master? singer? 
sloven ? son ? stag ? uncle ? 

Will you spell the masculine corre- 
sponding to ?na?c?.^ girl? madam? daugh- 
ter? niece? 

What is the second method of distin- 
guishing sex ; as, ahhnt? abbess? 319-2. 

Will you spell the feminine corre- 
sponding to abbot? actor? adininistrator ? 
baron ? benefactor ? bridegroom ? conduct- 
or ? czar ? duJce ? emperor ? executor ? 
giant? god? heir? hero? host? hunter? 
instructor ? Jew ? lion ? marquis ? pa- 
tron ? peer ? proprietor ? shepherd ? sor- 



NOUNS 



45 



Male, 
Prince, 
Prior, 
Prophet, 
Protector, 
Proprietor, 
Shepherd, 
Songster, 
Sorcerer, 



Female. 
Princess. 
Prioress. 
Prophetess. 
Protectress. 
Proprietress. 
Shepherdess. 
Songstress. 
Sorceress. 



Male, 

Sultan, 

Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 



Female. 
\ Sultaness. 
[ Sultana. 

Tigress. 

Traitress. 

Tutoress. 

Viscountess. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 



319-3. By prefixing' a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective ; as, 



A cock-sparrow, 
A man-servant, 
A he-goat, 
A he-bear, 
A male child, 
Male descendants, 



A hen-sparrow. 
A maid-servant. 
A she-goat. 
A she-bear. 
A female child. 
Female descendants. 



XXVII. NUMBER. 



320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or 
more. 

321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 

323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys, 

324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; as, 
wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness, 

325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, 
bellows, scissors, tongs, riches, etc. 

326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, swine, 

327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 

328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the 
noun singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural ; as, 
box, boxes; church, churches ; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses. 

329. Nouns ending in/or/e change these terminations into ves to form 
the plural; as, loaf, loaves; wife, wives. 



cererf sultan f tiger? tutor? viscount f vo- 
tary? widower? 

Will you spell the masculine corre^ 
spending to abbess? czarina? duchess? am- 
bassadress ? heroine ? huntress ? poetess ? 
prophetess? widow? 

What is the third method of distinguish- 
ing sex ; SiS, a man-servant? a maid-servant? 
319-3. 

Will you spell the feminine correspond- 
ing to male child? male descendants? 

XXVII. What does the word number 
mean ? 5, 

What does the number of nouns show 1 
320. 

What does singular mean ? 6. 



What does the singular number of 
nouns imply? 322. Give an example. 

What does plural mean ? 10. 

What does the plural number of nouns 
imply? 323. Give an example. 

How are ivJieat, gold, etc., used? 324. 

How are bellows, tongs, etc., used? 325. 

What is said of deer, sheep, etc. ? 326. 

How many numbers do nouns have, 
and what are they? 321, 

How is the plural number regularly 
formed? 327. Give an example. 

When d^ we add es to form the plural ? 
328. Give an example. 

What is the plural of loaf? 329. 

What is the rule for it? 329. 



46 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural is 
formed regularly: as, hey, keys; delay, delays; valley, valleys. But if the 1/ 
does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies ; 
2i.^ fly, fiies ; heauty, beauties. 

331. The following nouns form their plurals, not according to any general 
rules : — 

Sing. Plur. 

Fish, Fishes. (3.) 

Cupful, Cupfuls. 

Spoonful, Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law. 
Court-martial, Courts-martial. 
-D ,, f Brothers or 

Brother, {Brethren. 

332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, etc., are reckoned 
either as singular or plural nouns. The same is true of means, alms, amends. 
Antipodes, credenda, rninutife, literati, etc., are always plural. Bandit is now 
considered the singular of banditti. The noun neivs is always singular. Many 
nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the language from which 
they are derived. The following are of this class : — 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Man, 


Men. 


Mouse, 


Mice. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Louse, 


Lice. 


Child, 
Ox, 


Children. 
Oxen. 


Cow, 


' Cows or 
I Kine. 


Tooth, 


Teeth. 


Penny, 


Pence. (1.) 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Die, 


Dice. (2.) 


Goose, 


Geese. 


Pea, 


Peas. (3.) 



Singular. 
Antithesis, 

Appendix, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Digeresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 



Plural. 

Antitheses, 
f Appendixes or 
\ Appendices. 

Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata. 

Axes. 

Beaux or Beaus. 

Bases, 
f Cherubim or 
I Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

Digereses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases, 
f Encomia or 
I Encomiums. 

Errata. 



Singular. 
Genius, 
Genus, 
Hypothesis, 
Ignis fatuus. 

Index, 

Lamina, 
Magus, 

Memorandum, 

Metamorphosis, 
Parenthesis, 
Phenomenon, 
Radius, 

Seraph, 

Stimulus, 
Stratum, 
Thesis, 
Vertex, 

Vortex, 



Plural. 

Genii. (4.) 

Genera. 

Hypotheses. 

Ignes fatui. 
f Indices or 
\ Indexes. (5.) 

Laminae. 

Magi. 

Memoranda or 

Memorandums. 

Metamorphoses. 

Parentheses. 

Phenomena. 

Radii or Radiuses. 



( Seraphim or 
\ Seraphs. 

Stimuli. 

Strata. 

Theses. 

Vertices, 
f Vortices or 
1 Vortexes. 



Will you spell the plural of delay? 330. 
valley ? What is the rule for forming 
these plurals ? 330. 

Will you spell the plural of ^?/.^ 330. 
beauty ? Rule for the plural ? 

Do mian^ woman^ form their plurals regu- 
larly or irregularly? 331. 

Will you spell the plural of man f of 
woman ? child ? ox ? tooth f foot ? goose ? 
mou^e f louse f brother f die f Jish ? spoon- 
ful? court-martial P 

Will you spell the singular of lice? hine? 
cows? brethren? oxen? teeth? ppas? pence? 
pennies ? Jishes ? cupfuls? brothers-in-law? 

What is the plural of pea, when we refer 
to quantity? Offish? 



What is the singular of ba^iditti? 
332. 

In accordance with what laws does 
antithesis form the plural ? 332. 

Will you spell the plural of apex ? ap- 
pendix? arcanum? autoynaton? axis? cri- 
sis ? basis ? criterion ? datum ? desideratum ? 
effluvium, ? encomium ? erratum ? genius ? 
index? memorandum? 

Will you spell the singular of bases? 
beaux? cherubs? ellipses? genii? theses? 
parentheses ? stimuli f strata f 

How are mathematics, optics, etc., con- 
sidered in regard to number? 332. 

Of what number is 7neans f 332. alms f 
amends? antipodes f literati f news? 



(1.) Pennies, when the coin is meant. (2.) Pies, for coining. (3.^ Pease p.nd fish, meanincr 
quantities, hni peas and fishes, when number is nieant. (4.) Genii, when denoting aerial or 
imaginary spirits; geniuses, when denoting persons of genius. (5.) Indexes, when denoting 
pointers or tables of contents; indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. 



NOUNS. 47 

XXYIII. CASE. 

333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation 
which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 

334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

385. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and 
always the subject of the verb. 

336^. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, "John assists Wil- 
liam;" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the verb 
assists. 

337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, 
property, etc. ; as, '•' William's book." This case may be dis- 
tinguished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the 
letter 8. 

338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by 
taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it ; as, " John's hat." 

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case simply 
by taking the apostrophe; as, " On eagles' wings." 

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their posses- 
sive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letter s ; as ''Men's houses." 

341. When the singular ends in ss, the apostrophe only is added; as, ''For 
goodness' sake:*' except the noun witness; as, '^ The witness's deX-)Osition." 

342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apostrophe 
only; as, "For conscience' sa.'ke;" because an additional s would occasion 
too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation. 

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or 
relation. 

344. In the sentence. '' John strikes him.*' him is the object of the action de- 
noted by strikes; and in the sentence, *' He went to New York," New York 
is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 



345. 


DECLENSION OF 


xouxs. 






Singular, 


Plural. 


Singular, 


Plural, 


Nominative case, 


Mother, 


Mothers. 


Man, 


Men. 


Possessive ca-sCf 


Mother's, 


Mothers'. 


Man's, 


Men's. 


Objective case, 


Mother, 


Mothers. 


Man, 


Men. 



XXATEII. What is the meaning of the How do nouns in the plural? 389. 

word casef 47. "VS hen the plural noun does not end in s, 

Wliat is meant by the case of nouns? how is its possessive formed? 340. Give an 

33:>. example. 

llow many cases have nouns, and what When the singular ends in ss, how is the 

are they ? 334. possessive case formed ? 341. Give an ex- 

What does nominative mean ? 49. amiile. 

What is the nominative case? 335. Give How is the possessive case of nouns end- 

an example. ing in ??ce formed ? 342. Give an example. 

Wliat do you understand by the subject of Why is not the s added ? 342. 

a verb? 336. Hlustrate it bj' an example. What does the word objective mean? 

What does ^oss^ssrre mean? 59. 55. 

What do^ the possessive case denote? What does the objective case of nouns 

337. Give an example. denote? 343. Give an example. 

How may this case be distinguished from Vv'hat does the declension of nouns 

the other cases? 337. mean? 68. 

How do nouns in the singular form their Will yon decline mother^ 345. manf 

possessive case ? 33b. Give an example. brother? hat? 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE I. 

The possessive case is governed by the following noun, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" John^s wife returned.'''' 

346. Jo/in^s is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, 

THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and 

governed by wife, by Eule I. 

Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, third 

PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the nominative CASE to 

returned, by Rule YI. 

Beturned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative 
MOOD, IMPERFECT TENSE — '' 1. I returned ; 2. Yon returned ; 
8. He returned, or wife returned" — in the third person sin- 
gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule YII. 

MORE exercises IN SYNTAX. 

" William's son has come." " William's wife's sister re- 

** John's brother died." mained in town." 

*' John makes (1) boys' hats." ^^ Rufus studied Johnson's Dic- 

" John lost his knife." tionary." 

"The boys neglected their les- "Mary's bonnet is old." 

sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.) 

" Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Rufus's hat is new." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

'' Brothers estate.'''' 

347. If we examine the foregoing example, we wiU find it difficult to 
ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more ; if of on© 
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus ; '' Brother's estate ;" but if it 
belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the s, thus ; " Bro- 
thers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur; hence you perceive the 
importance, in writing, of attending to the subjeet of grammar. 

"Jfans' happiness,''^ 

348. Incorrect, because mans^ is in the possessive case, sin- 
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed 
before the s, according to the observations above, and Art. 338. 

Will you repeat the rule for the posses- Why cannot you tell? 

sive case ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, bow should 

In the sentence, " John's wife returned," the apostrophe be placed ? How, if more 

will you parse John's f wife? returned? than one? 

346. In the phrase, " Mans' happiness," wby 

Why is John's in the possessive case? is it incorrect for the apostrophe to follow 

337. the s ? 348. 
What kind of verb is returned? 346. What is the rule for forming the posses- 
Why ? 153. sive case of nouns ? 338. 
In what case is wife ? 346. Will you now parse man's ? 
Why? 335. We spell the possessive case of man 
4®=" The pupil may next parse the addi- thus, m-a-?2-(apostrophe) s ; will you in 

tional exercises in syntax. like manner spell the possessive of John? 

In the phrase, "Brothers estate," does William? Rvfus? women? hoys? 

one brother, or more than one, own the 4^=" The remaining exercises are to he 

estate? 347. corrected as well as parsed. 

(1.) Active- transitive verb. (2.) Adjective, and belongs to reward, by Eule IV. 



ARTICLES. 49 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 
" Johns sou departed/' '' I discovered Marias faults." 

" Susans sister will learn." '' Susan made little Harriets bon- 

" Charles task is too difacult." net." 

'' I have read Willi's poem." " Johnson makes mens shoes." 

EXEKCISES TO BE WEITTEN.^ 

349. Will you virite down two sentences, each containing 
a proper noun, as for example, " William learr^s grammar'' ^i 
One, containing a common noun ? One, containing a noun 
of the third person singular ? One, of the third person plural, 
and in the nominative case ? One, having a noun of the sec- 
ond person singular and of the feminine gender ? One, having 
a noun the name of some article of food ? One, having a 
noun the name of some quality ? One, having a noun of 
multitude ? One, having your own name associated -with 
book; as, ''John Griscom's book'' ? 



XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 

350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them 
out, or to limit their meaning. 

351. There are two articles, a or an, and the, 

352. A or an is called the indefinite article. 

353. The is called the definite article. 

354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular per- 
son or thing; as, "n house/' '^ a man,'' that is, any house, any man. The 
article the is called definite, because it means some particular person or thing; 
as, 'Uhe house," ^Uke man," meaning some particular house, some particular 
man. 

355. A becomes an before a vowel and before a silent h: as, ^^ an acorn," 
^' an hour." But if the h be sounded, the a only is used; as, '^ a hand/' "a 
heart:" except when the word before which the article is placed has its ac- 
cent on the second syllable; as, "an heroic action," "an historical account." 

356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an; as, "a 
union," "a university," "a useful thing." 

357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing 
one, we sound it as if written toun. 

358. The article a or an means one; as, "an ounce," "a pound," that is, 
one ounce, one pound. 

XXIX. What is an article? 350. But if the ?t is sounded, which is to be 

"Wluit does definite mean? 78. used? 355. Give an example. 

What is the called? 353. Why? 35^. What exception to this? 355. G-ive an 

Give an example. example. 

What does wcZe/Zm^e mean? 81. Do we say, "a union," or "aw union"? 

What is a or an called? 352. Why? 354. "n university/' or "aw university"? Why? 

Givo an example. 'do^-. 

How many articl&s are there? 351. Do we say, " a one," or ''aw one"? Why? 

Name them. o57. 

When does « become anf Zbo. Give an What does the article a mean? 358. 

example. Give an example. 

* Either on a slate or in a small maimscript book kept for the purpose. 

5 D 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

RULE 11. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the 
singular number. 

RULE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular 

or the plural number. 

359. Exception. When the adjectives few, great many, dozen^ hundred^ 
tJiousand, etc. come between the noun and article, the noun to which the 
indefinite article belongs is plural; as, **a few men,^' *^a great many men." 

EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. 
''The Urd flies swiftly:' 

860. The is a definite ahticle, and belongs to Mrd, ac- 
cording to EULE III. 

Bird is a common noun, of the common gender, third 

PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and In the NOMINATIVE CASE tO 

flies ^ by Rude YI. 
Flies is an actiye-intransitive yerb, indicative mood, 

PRESENT TENSE— ''1. I fly ; 2. You l!y ; 3. He Hies, or bird 
flies"— in the third person singular, and agrees with Mrd^ 
by Rude YII. 
Swiftly is an ad yerb, qualifying ^les, by Rule IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"The boys have arrived season- ^' Children attend the schooL" 

ably." " William founded a u Diversity. '^ 

" Galileo invented the telescope.^^ ^' The grass is green." 

" The boy had an ulcer." " Farmers carry hay into the 
" William gave an historical ac- barn." 

count (1} of the transaction." ^^The good scholar obeys his in- 
" Columbus discovered the con- structor," 

tinent of America." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" He had a ulcer, '''^ 

861. Incorrect, because we use an before a A^owel, except u 
long : a should, therefore, be an; thus, " an ulcer." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 
" A enemy approaches." " Three barleycorns make a inch." 

" James procured a inkstand." " Eight drachms make a ounce." 
*^ He conferred a honor." " They formed an union." 

" An unit figure occupies the low- " He quoted an hard saying." 

est place in whole numbers." " Thomas has lost an horse." 

What is the rule for the indefinite arti- -^^ The remaining exercises are next to 

cle? Rule II. he parsed from the book. 

What exception to this rule? 859. Wo^ild you say, "a ulcer," or "aw ul- 

What is the rule for the definite article? cer" ? Yvhy ? 361. 

Rule III. 4^5=- The jnipil should now talce the re- 

In the sentence, "the bird flies swiftly," rtiaining senUnces to he coro-ected. He 

how do you parse thef hirdf Hies? swiftly f should he required to parse as well as cor-- 

360. * red ihem. 



(1.) Apply Eule VIIL 



ADJECTIVES. 51 

SENTENCES TO BE WKITTEN. 

362. Will YOU write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
and in the other the indefinite article? One, containing a correctly 
used before u long ? One, having a definite article correctly used before 
the consonant hi 

Will you write two nouns, the naipes of diflTerent things in the school- 
room ? Two, the names of different cities ? One sentence, having a 
proper noun used as a common noun ? 



XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 

363. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or a pro- 
noun, to describe or qualify it; as, ''An obedient son.'' 

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the 
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of compari- 
son — ^the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

365. The positive degree simply describes an object ; as, 
'^ John is good.^^ 

366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in meaning; as, ''William is better than John.'' It 
implies a comparison between two. 

367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or the lowest degree ; as, " Thomas is 
the best ;'''' " Walter is the worst.^^ 

368. It usually implies a comparison among three or more. 

369. The simple word, or positive degree, if a monosyllable (1), becomes 
the comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to 
the end of it; as, wisey wiser, wisest; great, greater ^ greatest. 

370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made 
by placing the adverbs more and moat before the positive; as, benevolent^ more 
benevolent, most benevolent, 

371. The comparison is. sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least; 
as, wise, less wise, least wise, 

372. Dissyllables (2) ending in y; as, Jiappi/, lovely, and in le after a 
mute (3) ; as, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite, 

XXX. What is the meaning of the word What does it usually imply ? 368. 

adjective f 95. What is a mouosyllable ? 

What is an adjective ? 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared ? 369. 

example. Give an example. 

How many degrees of comparison are How are dissyllables compared ? 372. 

there? 3(54. What effect do Uss and least have on 

Will you name them? adjectives? 371. 

What does the positive degree do ? 365. What is a dissyllable ? 372. 

Give an example. Will you spell the comparative and su- 

What does the comparative degree do ? perlative degrees of able ^ lovely 1 ample ? 

366. Give an example. discreet f polite? 372. 

What does it imply ? 366. Which are the mutes ? 372. 

What does superlative mean ? 103. How do words of more than two sylla^ 

What does the superlative degree do? bies almost invariably form their compari* 

367. Give an example. son ? 372. 

(1.) A word of one syllable. (2.) Words of two syllables. 

(3.) b, Tc, p, tt and e and g hard, are mutes. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

easily admit of er and est ; as, Jiappier, ha2Jpiest ; abler, ablest, etc. Words 
of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 

373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, iqoper^most. 

374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do 
not admit of comparison; as, extreme, perfect, right, lorony, infinite, ceaseless, 
supreme, omnipotent, eternal. 

375. By adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison 
below the positive; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. 

376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest; as, " good," 
^' very good.'' 

377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ; 
as, one, two, three ; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared. 

378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meariing, and may be considered as such in 
parsing ; as, '^ Providence rewards the good, and punishes the badj^ 

RULE IV. 

Adjedives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they 

describe, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

''John is sincere^ 

379. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu- 
lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE 

CASE to is, hy Rule YI. 

Is is a NEUTER VERB, in the indicative mood, PRESENT 

TENSE — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is,"— third per- 
son SINGULAR, and agrees with John^ according to Rule YIL 
Sincere is an adjective, — '' sincere, more sincere, most sin- 
cere," — in the positive degree, and belongs to Jo/m, by Rule 
lY. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

^' You are studious/^ '• One man has come." 

^' John is more studious." '' Two men have departed." 

*' William is most studious.'' ^' Twenty men will sail." 

'' Mary is intelligent." " James wrote his name on the first 

*^ James is active." page." 

^' Thomas is less active." *' Here comes a great man." 

" Charles is happy." '^ Here comes a greater man." 

'' Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man." 

^' No composition is perfect." " The first fleet contained five hun- 

*^ Religion makes its votaries happy." dred men." 

Is per/iec^ compared ? Why? 374. superlative degrees of good? illf muchf 

Will you name several other adjectives little f 

that are not compared? 374. "When is an adjective to be considered a 

How is tlie superlative formed in the noim ? 378. 

y^ord upper? 373. What is the rule for the adjective? 

What is the effect of ish added to adjec- lY. 

tives? 375. Give an example. In the phrase, "John is sincere," how 

What is the force of veiy in compari- do yon parse John ^ is? sincere? 379. 

Bon? 376. Wliy is sincere in the positive degree? 

What are numeral adjectives? 377. 365. Why do you call is a neuter verb? 

Give an example. Are they compared? 157. 

377. M^Let the pupil next take the exerciser 

Will you spell the comparative and thcd follow ^ and parse as before. 



PRONOUNS. 53 

XXXI. 

380. Double comparatives and double superlatives, since they 
add nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser^ more wiser, 
etc. ; also, lesser, supremest, most infinite, etc. 

SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a different 
adjective in'^the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the compara- 
tive dej^ree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? 

Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as will 

make sense ? "A boy studies his lesson." " A boy deserves 

punishment." " A man helps the man." " Merchants own 

ships." " The instructor loves scholars." " William is a 

scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the one that I ever 

saw." 



XXXII. OF PRO^^OUNS. 

381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 

382. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is SO Called, because it invari- 
ably represents the same person. There are five personal 
pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it. They have person, 
number, and case, like nouns ; and those of the third person 
have gender also. 

383. /is the first person, thou the second, he, she, or it, 
the third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 

384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective ; and two numbers 
— the singular and the plural. 

385. Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly used in the 
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel or with 
silent h; as, ^' Blot out all mine iniquities." 

XXXI. Is it correct to say, "A lesser XXXII. What does the word pronoun 

evil"? Why not? 880. . signify ? 120. 

Will you correct the following inaccu- Wliat is a pronoun ? 381. 

racies in comparison as I read them to you? Why is a personal pronoun so called? 

" He is intelligenter." 882. 

" She is the most wisest." How many personal pronouns are there, 

" A worser evil." and what are they ? 382. 

"William is a bad boy; Joseph is a V/liy is this number said to include all 

worser one." the pronouns? 134. 

'•Jle gave a more stronger proof of the Which is the first person? the second? 

fact tlian the other." the third? 383. 

''The pleasures of the mind are more To which of the pronouns do we apply 

(1) preferable than those of the body." gender? 383. 

"That table is round, but this is a Why is not gender applied to the first 

rounder one, and that is the roundest of and second persons? 136. 

the three." Which is masculine? 383. which femi- 

"This is more square." nine? 383. which neuter? 383. 

" A more greater concern " How many cases have pronouns, and 

"The most fairest of all the daughters what are they? 384. 

of Eve." How many numbers? 384. 

" His mother's extremest joy." Will you decline I? th"u f he f she ? it f 127. 

(1.) For more preferable than, v^a-di preferable to. 
5^ 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSOIsrAL PEONOUNS. 



386. Compound personal 
the word self, in the plural 
as, himself, themselves , etc. 



pronouns are formed by adding 
selves, to the simple pronouns ; 



PERSON. 


CASE. 


SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


First. 


Nom, 


Myself, 
Wanting, 

Myself, 




Ourselves. 




Ohj. 




Ourselves. 


Second, 


Nom, 


TMyself, or \ 
Yourself, J 


Yourselves. 




Poss. 










Ohj. 


Thyself, 0? 
Yourself, 




Yourselves. 


Third. 


Nom. 
JP0S8 


Himself, 




Themselves. 




Ohj, 


Himself, 




Themselves. 




Nom. 


Herself, 




Themselves. 




Poss 










Ohj. 


Herself, 




Themselves. 




Nom, 


Itself, 




Themselves. 




Poss 










Ohj. 


Itself, 




Themselves. 



RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for lohich they 
stajid^ in gender^ number^ and perso7i. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
''John found his Jcnife.'^^ 
887. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, third 

PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tO 

found, by Rule VI. 

Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative 
MOOD, imperfect TENSE — '^ 1. I found ; 2. You found ; 3. He or 
John found'' — third person singula^r, and agrees with John, by 

EULE VII. 

His is a PERSONAL pronoun, of the third person singular, 
MASCULINE GENDER, and agrees with Joh7i, according to Eule V. ; 
in the possessive case, and governed by knife, by Eule I. 

I^'nife is a common noun, of the third person singular, 
neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed hj fotind, 
according to Eule VIII. 



Of what cnmber and person is minef 
ours? mef wef they? tliinef you? yours? 
127. 

Of what gender, number, and person is 
he? she? it? 

Of what number, person, and case is 
they ? ours ? his ? hers ? mine ? 

in what style were mine and thine for- 
merly used ? 885. 

XXXIII. How are the compound per- 
sonal pronouns formed? 



What is the rule for the agreement of 
personal pronouns in the phrase, "John 
found his knife" ? V. 

IIow do you parse John ? 387. 

Will you parse John in the phrase, 
"John found his knife" ? 387. 

Will you parse found? his? knife? 
387. 

JgO=- The learner should next parse the re- 
maining exercises in Syntax from the bookj 
and then take the exercises to he written. 



PRONOUNS. 55 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



" James obtained his request." " Ye despise reproof." — 

"I will assist you." " They mend their pens." 

" He will receive his reward." " Mary tore her handkerchief." — 

" She misused him." " Virtue has its reward."^ 

" Sin ruins its votaries."^ " She deceived them." 

2. 

^' An indulgent father will reprove i^ohn is in distress, and I will 

his son when (1) he deserves assist him." 

it." "I found Mary and her mother in 

" A dutiful son gladdens the hearts "^ trouble, and (2) comforted (3) 

of his parents." them." 

EXEECISES TO BE WEITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal 
pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first person 
plural ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, 
so as to make sense ? " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let 
Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The 
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." 

Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable 

words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington 

father of his ." " Columbus America." " Boston 

inhabitants." " The ocean is miles wide." '^ first 



XXXIY. OF ADJECTIVE PROI^OUN^S. 

388. In the sentence, *^Both wealth and poverty are temptations,* that 
tends to excite pride, this discontent;" you perceive that the word that rep- 
resents wealth, and the word this poverty. This and that, therefore, re- 
semble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 

389. When I say, ^' This house is mine, that barn is yours," the words this 
and that are joined to nouns, like adjectives, to define or specify them: they 
may, on this account, be called adjecti\^es. 

390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble 
both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are sometimes 
called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 

391. The ADJECTIVE pronouns may be divided into three 
sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

392. The distributive pronouns are those that relate to 
persons or things, taken separately and singly. 

XXXIV. What are adjective pronouns? One in which they resemble adjectives? 

390. 389. 

Why are they so called? 388,389. Into how many sorts may these pro- 

By what other name have thefje pro- nouns be divided, and what are they? 

nouns been called ? 390. 391 . 

AVill you give an example in which What is a distributive pronoun? 

these words resemble pronouns? 388. 392. 

(1.) AdverlD. (2.) Conjunction. (3.) Apply Rule XI. 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1) PRONOUNS. 
Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 

394. Each relates to two or more persons or thiDgs, taken separately; a% 
" Each of his brothers is doing well." 

395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them, taken separately; as, " Every man must account for himself/' 

396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and 
signifies the one or the other; as, *' I have not seen either." Hence, to say, 
*^ Either of the three," is incorrect. 

397. Neither means not either; that is, not one nor the other; as^^ 
^'Neither of my friends was there." 

398. The demonstrative (2) pronouns are those which 
point out precisely the things to which they relate. 



399. DEMONSTRATIVE 
Sing. 
This, 
That, 
Former, 
Latter, 



PRONOUNS. 
Plu. 
These. 
Those. 
Former. 
Latter. 



400. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that and those 
to the most distant ; as, " These gloves are superior to those." '^ Both wealth 
and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 

401. The indefinite pronouns are those that refer to 
things in an indefinite or general manner. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Of these 
pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is 
declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. 

Sing. Plu. 

403. Npm. Other, Others. 
Pass. Other's, Others'. 
Ohj. Other, 

Sing. 

404. Nom. One, 
Poss. One's, 
Ohj. One. 

We say, "This book," but, "These books; 
men :" hence, 

405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 



Others. 
Plu. 
©nes. 
Ones\ 
Ones, 
also, " One man," "■ Twenty 



Why is it so called? 393. 

Which are they? 393. 

What does eac/i refer to? 394. Give an 
example. 

What does every relate to ? 395. Give an 
example. 

What does either relate to? 396. Give an 
example. 

What does neither mean ? 397. 

What does demonstrative mean ? 398. 

What are demonstrative pronouns ? 398. 

Which are they ? 399. 



Which are singular? 399. Which plu- 
ral? 399. 

What do this and tJiese refer to? 400. 

What do that and tliose refer to? Give 
an exami'le. 400. 

What does indefinite mean? 81. 

What is an indefinite pronoun? 401. 

Whicli are they? 402. 

Will you decline other f 40-3. 

"Will you decline one.'? 404. 

What note do you apply to parsing ad- 
jective pronouns? Note 1. 



(1.^ So called from distribute, to divide anion c/ several. 
(2.) So called from demonstrate, to prove or show precisely. 



PRONOUNS. 



57 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

^' These tivo hooks belong to me." 

406. These is an adjective pronoij]?^ of the demonsteative kind^ 
in the plueal numbee, and belongs to booTcs^ according to N'ote I. 
Two is a numeeal adjective, and belongs to hooks^ by Note I. 
BooJcs^ belong^ etc., are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
" Every man performs his part in " These men might remain with 



creation.'' 

" Each man arrived at his station." 

"Either party can repair the in- 
jury." 

"Some persons cannot acquire 
wealth." 

"Many people obtain riches with 
apparently little exertion." 

" One boy labors for his improve- 
ment." 

" This man neglects his affairs." 



" Those men make many pretences 
to religion." 

"All rational beings desire happi- 
ness." 

"By application almost any boy 
may acquire an honorable rank 
in his class." 

" Good and virtuous men will, 
sooner (1) or later (1), attain to 
happiness." 



"T/ie old bird feeds her young ones.^^ 

40T. Ones is an in^definite peonoun, representing dirds ; in the 
COMMON gendee, thied peeson PLUEAL, in the objective case, and 
governed hj/eeds^ according to Rule YIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" One boy influences many others." others spend their time in idleness ; 
" None act their part too well." the former will receive praise, the 

" Some scholars study diligently, latter censure." 
We cannot say, " Them run/' but *^They run ;'' hence, 

Note II. When a noun or a pronoun is the subject of the verb, 
it should be in the nominative case. 

It is very common for persons in conversation to say, ^' Them books/' 
'^ Them knives,'' etc., instead of ^' Those books," " Those knives," etc. The 
incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal pronoun in 
the place of an adjective pronoun : hence, 

Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place of 
these or those. 



In the phrase, "These two books," etc., 
will you parse these f two? 406. 

AViil you now take the book, and parse 
the remaining exercises under Note T.? 

In the phrase, "The old bird feeds her 
young ones," will you parse onfsf 407. 

Will you correct, by Note I., the follow- 
ing examples as I read tliem to you ? 

" He will not come this two hours." 

"I dislike those sort of books." 

"I have two canes; yuu may have any 
of them." 

Do we sav, "77/<??/ run," or "T/^em run" ? 
Why? Note II. 

Will you now correct, by Note II., the 
following examples as I read them to you? 



" Them will go." 

"Him and me went to church." 

" Art thee well?" 

" Him who is diligent will improve." 

Would you say, ''Them knives," or '^ These 
knives"? Why? III. 

In what does the incorrectness consist? 
III. 

Will you correct the following expres- 
sions ? 

"Them boys are ver}' idle." 

"Bring me them pens." 

" Which of them three things do you 
prefer?" 

i^== The piqnl may next take the exercises 
to be written. 



(1.) Adverbs. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q, Will you compose two sentences, each, having a different adjectire 
pronoun? One, having a demonstrative pronoun? One, having an 
indefinite pronoun used as a noun ? 

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow- 
ing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — , and then flung 
' — away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise." 

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under 
Rule II. ? Rule III.? Rule IV.? RuleV.? RuleVL? 



XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

408. In the sentence, *^ That man is happy who lives virtuously," the word 
who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun man), and it is a 
relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence, 

409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for 
some noun before it in the same sentence. 

410. There are three relative pronouns, viz.: 

411. Who, which, and that. 

412. Who is used in speaking of persons; as, "The man 
who came." 

413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, 
"The bird which sings," " The tree which I planted." 

414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to dis- 
tinguish one of two" individuals, or a particular person among many others; 
as, " Which of the two is he ?" " Which of them has gone V 

415. That, as a relative, is often used in speaking either 
of persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as, 

'^ The boy that reads," or '' The boy who reads ;" " The bird that flew,'* or 
*^ The bird which flew/* " The bench that was made," or *' The bench which 
was made." 

lliat is used in preference to loho or which, in the following cases : — 

1. In speaking both of persons and things; as, "The man and the beast 
that I saw, perished." 

2. In speaking of children ] as, " The child that I met." 

3. After the adjective sa?rte; as, " He is the same man that we saw yes- 
terday," 

4. After the superlative degree ; as, " He is the wisest man that the world 
ever produced." 

5. After the relative loho ; as, " Who that reflects." 

415 — 1. Exception. That, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im- 
mediately before it; as, " He is the same man with that you were acquainted." 
For xcith that, read loith whom. It is remarkable, however, that, when the 
arrangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition; as, "He 
is the same man that you were acquainted with," 

XXXV. In the sentence, " That man is In what cases do we use wldch, in speak- 

happy who lives virtuously," what part of ing of persons? Give an example. 414. 

speech is who 2 Why? 408. "VYliat kind? When may i?/ia/ be used ? 415. 

Why? 408. Is it correct to saj% "The child who"? 

- What is a relative pronoun ? 409. Why not? "The same man who"? Why 

Name the relative pronouns. 411. not? "The wisest man which"? Why not? 

When do we use w/iof Give an example. " Who, who reflects"? Why not? 415; 1, 2, 

412. 3, 4. 5. 

When do we use iohi<ih f Give an exam- What exception is mentioned? 415 — le 

pie. 413. Give an example. 415 — 1. 



PRONOUNS. 59 

416—1. We can say, " The man who/' or " The men who," using the rela- 
tive who in speaking either of one man or more than one : who, then, is of 
both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Who, Who. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Ohj. Whom, Whom. 

417. Which and that are of both numbers, but they are not declined, except 
that lohose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ) as, " Is there 
any other doctrine lohose followers are punished?" 

418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three 
words; as, ^^ Philosophy, whose end," for "the end of which." 

419. Antecedent signifies going before. 

420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which the 
relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative,* as, "John, 
who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent of who. 

421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you should 
not get the impression that the last two are always relatives ; for that is a 
relative only when it is used in the sense of loho or which ; that is, when who 
or lohich may be used in its place, without destroying the sense,* as, *' Here 
is the knife that I found," which can be altered to " Here is the knife which 
I found," without injury to the sense. 

422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, 
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an 
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction,* as, "He studies that he may 
learn." 

423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a relative 
pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunction. 

424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pro- 
nouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the same particulars and 
by the same rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to both. 

EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. 
''That man is happy who Urns virtuously.'^'' 

425. Tha.t is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular 
NUMBER, and belongs to man^ by Xote I. 

Who is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of the MASCULINE GENDER, 

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees with man., by Rule Y. 
It is in the nominative case to lives^ according to Eule Y1. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" That man is fortunate who es- '^ I met the same man in the mar- 
capes censure." ket to-day (1), that I met yes- 
" Tlie girl whom I saw, perished.'' terday in the street." 

How many numbers has w/io f 416. When is that an adjective pronoun? 

Will you decline it ? 416-1. Give an example. 422. 

How many numbers have which and When a conjunction? Give an example. 

thatf Are they declined? 417. 422. 

What exception to this ? 417. How many different parts of speech may 

When ivJiose is used as the possessive that represent? 423. 

case of which, how many vv^ords does it What is the rule for the agreement of 

represent? Give an example. 418, relative pronouns? 424. 

What is the meaning of antecedent? Will you parse ^/ia^, in the phrase, "That 

419. man"? 425. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? In the sentence, " That man is happy 

Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously," will you parse w;/iO f 

Is ^/iai always a relative? 421. 425. 

When is it a relative? Give an example. Will you now take the book, and parse 

421. the remaining exercises? 

(i.) Adverb. 



60 EKGLISH GRAMMAK. 

" Yoii, who came first, should retire '' That house, vv^hich stands on the 

first/' hiil, once (1) belonged to me." 

" You taught the boy whose hat I "' The boy whom I instruct learns 

found.'' well." 

SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND COEKECTED. 
'''The man ivhich I saw.^^ 
426. Incorrect; because, in speaking of persons, who, 
whose, or whom is generally to be used. It should there- 
fore read, " The man whom I saw." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

'' The bird whom I killed had " Thou who are in prosperity must 

made her nest." assist me in adversity.'' 

" The man which visited me has ^' He which shuns vice does gener- 

left town." ally practise virtue." 

" That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, 

tuous." should be grateful." 

SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative whv f One, 
containing which f One, containing that f 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly 

used? "The man sins shall die." "The boy studies will 

learn." " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill up 

the following with one or more words that will make sense ? " Intem- 
perance evils." " If truth sorry." 

Q. Will you embrace in difierent sentences each of the following 
words ? Washington,'^ Columbus, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom, Riches^ 
James Monroe. 



XXXYI. OF COMPOUND AND INTBRROGATIYE 
PRONOUNS. 

427. '^ I took ichat you gave me.'^ 

" I took that which you gave me." 

" I took the thing ivhich you gave me." 

^^ I took those things which you gave me." 

428. On examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word 
v^haf, in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in the suc- 
ceeding ones ( the word what, then, is clearly a pronoun ;\ and because it 
stands for more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word 
before the relative ivhich, in the phrase ^^that which," or *'the thing which," 
is the antecedent of ivhich. Hence, 

429. What, is a compound relative pronoun, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiv- 
alent to THAT WHICH. 

Instead of saying, "The man which I tences which mean the same as "I took 

saw," what should I say ? Why ? 426. what you gave me" ? 427. 

Will you correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for? 

ing exercises, and then take the exercises 42S. 

to be written ? Why is what a pronoun ? 428. 

XXXYI. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun ? 428. 

(1.) Adverb. 

* Thns, "Washington was a true patriot," etc. The pupil may write several sentences on 
each word. 



PRONOUKS. 61 

430. Who, which, and what have sometimes the word ever or soever annexed (1) 
to them; and each combination of this sort is called a compound relative; 
as, whoever, whosoever, whichever, lohiehsoever, etc. They are not often used. 

431. Who, iohich, and what are called interrogatives, or relatives of the 
interrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions; as, ''Who is 
he?" 'MVliich is the book?'' "What are you doing?" These relatives, 
you perceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase con- 
tained in the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows after the 
relative; as, "Whom did you see?" Ans. "John." Here John is the subse- 
quent to which whom refers. 

432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each 
other in meaning : the former signifying going before, the latter following after, 

433. Whether was formerly made use of to express interrogation; as, 
"Whether of these shall I choose?" but it is now seldom used, the inter- 
rogative which supplying its place. 

434. Which, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to 
nouns, are adjective pronouns; as, "Unto which promise our twelve tribes." 

435. When what and lohich are joined to nouns in asking questions, they 
are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, " Which horse did he take?" 

436. In some instances, we find what used in the sense of an interjection; 
as, " What ! take my money, and then my life ?" 

EXEECISES m SYNTAX. 
'' I' loill leave ivhat is useless. '^'^ 

437. What, in the example above, means the same as "that which," or "the 
thing which :" we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it has the 
government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parse it as 
standing for thing, and secondly for which. 

What is a compound kelative peonoun, and is equivalent to 
" that wiiich," or " the thing which. '^ In representing thing, it 
may be considered a pronoux of the third person singular, 
NEurER GENDER, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by leave, 
according to Rule VIII. 

What, in representing which, may be considered a relative 

PRONOUN of the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, NEUTER GENDER, and 

relates to thi?ig for its antecedent, according to EuLE V., and in the 

NOMINATIVE CASE tO is, by RULE VI. 

Is is a NEUTER VERB, in the indicative MOOD, PRESENT TENSE 

— "1. I am; 2. You are; 3. He or which is'' — third person 
SINGULAR, and agrees with ivhich, the relative part of the pro- 
noun ivh:at, according to Rule VII. 

Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs 
to what, by Rule IV. 

How may what be described ? 429. Wlien are what, ivhich, and that adjective 

Will you give th)-ee examples of com- pronouns? Give an example. 434. 

pound pronouns formed by annexing ever Which of the relatives are sometimes in- 

or soever f 430. terrogative adjective pronouns ? When ? 

What is the meaning of annexed? 435. 

430. When I say, "What! rob me of my 

When are who, which, and what called money, and then take my life?" in what 

interrogatives? 431. sense is ly/mi used ? 436. 

What are the nouns called, to which in- In the sentence, "I will leave what is 

terrogatives refer? 431. useless," how do you parse what? isf use- 

What is the, meaning of subsequent f lessf i-M. 

432. What does what stand for ? 437. 

Why so called? 431. Do you parse it as one word or two? 

In the phrase, " Whom did you see?" What two? 437. 

Ans. "John;" which word is the subse- M^" Tlie pupil may now parse the re- 

quent? 431. maining exercises on the pj-onoun what. 

(1.) Placed after. 



62 e:n^glish grammak, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" James will do what is proper.'^ '^ William demands what I cannot 

" You heard what I said.'' give." 

" Whatever improves delights him." " They advocate what is excellent.'^ 



XXXYII. OF THE VERB. 

438. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter. 

439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is 
always in the nominative case; as, ''John runs." Active 
verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 

440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or 
may have an object after it, on which the action terminates ; 
as, ''John beats William.'' 

441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has 
nor can have an object after it. 

442. Passive means suffering or receiving, 

443. When I say, ^'John is beaten by William," is beaten is a verb, be- 
cause it expresses action; and it is a passive verb, because it expresses the 
action received by John; and if John receives the action, then he is the ob- 
ject of it : hence, 

444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 

445. The object of the action is in the nominative case. 

446. Active nominative^ or actor ^ " John strikes William.'' 

447. Passive nominative, or object of the action, "William 
is struck by John.'^ 

448. On examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the 
verb is active, its nominative is likewise active; and that when the verb is 
passive, its nominative is likewise passive. 

449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions 
when we wish to state what has been done, without naming the author; 
thus, instead of saying, " William struck John," I can, to avoid alluding to 
William, say, " John was struck." 

XXXVII. What is the meaning of In the example, "John is beaten by 

verb?'^ William," which is the verb? Why? 

Why so called? 143. What kind? Why? 448. 

What is a verb ? 438. What word is the object? Why? 443. 

What is an active verb? 439. What, then, is a passive verb? 444. 

What is always its nominative? Give Which is the nominative to a passive 

an example. 439. verb, the agent or the object ? 445. 

What is the meaning of transitive ff of Is the nominative to an active verb ac- 

intransitive f% tive or passive ? Give an example. 448. 

How may active verbs be divided? 439. Is the nominative to a passive verb ac- 

When is an active verb transitive ? Give tive or passive ? Give an example. 448. 

an example. 440. In what particular is the passive voice a 

When is aa active verb intransitive ? convenient form of expression ? Give an 

Give an example. 441. example. 449. 

What is the meaning of passive? 442. What is the meaning of neuter 1^ 

* See question to 142. f See question to 150. J See question to 152. § See question to 157. 



MOOD. 63 

450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor pas- 
sive, expressing simply either being or existence in a certain 
state ; as, '' He sits,^^ '' He is at home." 



XXXYIII. MOOD, OR MODE. 

451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action 
or being. 

452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating 
or declaring a thing, or for asking a question ; as, " I walk ;'' 
^^Do I walk?'' 

453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi- 
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or with- 
out asking a question ; as, ''I may go;" ''May I go?" ''He 
must read," etc. 

454. Of the subjunctiye mood. The term subjunctive signifies subjoined or 
added to. 

455. When I say, "I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, "if he desire it," 
is added on to the one before it: hence we say, "if he desire it" is in the 
subjunctive mood. The term, howerer, is limited to such sentences as are 
preceded by the conjunctions if, unleHS, although^ except, lest, etc., which 
imply doubt or some uncertainty. 

456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt 
or uncertainty. 

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different 
forms. It is equally correct to say, " If he is poor, he is respected," and 
"If he he studious, he will excel." The verbs be and is are both in the pres- 
ent tense; and since each has the conjunction ?/ before it, each is in the sub- 
junctive mood. 

458. The phrase, "If he he studious," means the same as, "If he will he 
studious ,•'' it therefore plainly implies future time. 

459. On the contrary, in the phrase, " If he is poor," the sense plainly is, 
" If he is now, at the present time, poor," without any reference to future 
time. 

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is implied; 
and in the other, both doubt SLnd/utin-e time. 

Wliat is a neuter verb? Give an ex- How is the term subjunctive limited? 

ample. 450. 455. 

How many kinds of verbs are there, and What is the subjunctive mood used for? 

what are they ? 438. 456. 

XXXYIII. What is the meaning of How many different forms has it? 457. 

mood ? 166. Give an example of each. 457. 

What is mood? 451. In what tense are the verbs be and is? 

What is the meaning of indicative? 457. 
168. In what mood is each with the conjunc- 

What is the indicative, mood used for? tion tT before it? 457. 
Give an example. 452. What does "If he be studious " mean, in 

What is the meaning oi potential f 212. respect to time? 458. 

What is the potential mood used for? What tense, then, is referred to? 458. 
Give an example. 453. What does " If he is poor " mean, in re- 

What is the meaning of subjunctive f specttotime? 459. 

454. What idea, then, is implied in the one 
In what mood is *'If he desire it"? form? 460. 

455. What two ideas in the other form ? 460. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

461. The verb is corresponds with the common form of the verb to he, 
in the indicative mood, present tense; as, "I am, you are, he is;" — we will, 
therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the common form of the 
subjunctive mood; and when the verb is not varied in the different persons, 
we will call it the stibjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. 
You should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present 
and the imperfect tense, it being customary to vary the terminations of the 
verb in the remaining tenses, as usual. 

462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use of the 
subjunctive mood : 

463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present 
tense^ has a reference to future time, we should use the 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. (535.) 

Present Tense, 

464. Sini/ular, Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3.. If they love. 

465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has no reference to future time, we should use the 

COMMON FORM. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lovest, or } 2. If ye love, or ) 
If you love. j If you love. J 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 

466. Other conjunctions, besides if. are used before the subjunctive mood. 
If is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more strongly 
than most others. 

467. From the foregoing, it will be seen that when the verb is in the sub- 
junctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood; a«, " He will not be 
pardoned unless he repent,'' that is, '^unless he will repent;*' " If thou ever 
return, thou shouldst be thankful," that is, "if thou shouldst ever return." 

468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com- 
mon form, simply by placing a conjuuction, implying doubt, before it ; as, 
*^^ I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if; thus, 
^af I walk." 

469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub- 
junctive; as, " I can go," is the potential ; " If I can go," the subjunctive. 

470. Of the IMPERATIVE mood. When I say, "John, mind your book," I 
command John to do something; and because imperative m^2bU& commanding, 
we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood. 

With what does the verb is correspond? What does "He will not be pardoned un- 

461, less lie repent " mean ? 467. 

How is the verb varied in the common What, then, is understood ? 467. 

form of the subjunctive mood ? 461. "If thou ever return, thon shouldst be 

Why called common? How varied in thankful:" what does this mean ? 467. 

the subjunctive form? Why called sub- What, then, is understood? 467. 

junctive? 461. What is always understood in this form ? 

How is this distinction limited? 461. 467. 

How are the remaining tenses varied? How may a verb in the indicative mood 

461. be converted into the subjunctive ? 468. 

When do we use the subjunctive form ? How can the potential be changed 

463. to the subjunctive? Give an example. 

Will you conjugate the verb love in this 469. 

form, ill the present tense? 464. In what mood is "John, mind your 

V»^hen do we use the common form ? 465. studies" ? Why? 470. 

Why is the conjunction i/u^ed most fre- What is the meaning of imperative? 

quantly in the subjunctive mood ? 466, 470. 



MOOD. 65 



471. This mood embraces the following particulars : 

1. Command; as, ^' John, sit up." 

2, Eutreafj/ ; as, ^^ Do visit me." 

3, Exhortiiuj ; as, " Remember my counsel." 

4. PernntttKfj ; as, "Go in peace." 

472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 

473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person; as, 
"John, come to me;" because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty, 
etc., we must necessarily address some one; hence, you can see the reason why 
this mood has but one person, viz., the second. 

474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in 
present time, to do anything in past time, yesterday, for instance; conse- 
quently, a verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 

475. When I command a person to do anything, the performance of the 
command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of the com- 
mand, that is, in future time ; but the command itself must, from the very 
nature of the case, take place in present time : this mood, therefore, cannot, 
strictly speaking, have any future tense : hence, 

476. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in 
the second person. 

477. Of the INFINITIVE MOOD. In the phrases, "John begins to sing," 
" The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest to sing," you perceive that the 
verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of its 
different agents, John, the hoys, and thou : hence, to sing is said not to be 
limited either by person or number. 

478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, signifying not 
limited : hence, 

4T9. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not 
limited either bj person or number. 

480. To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood: as, "Let 
me go," instead of "Let me to go;" " I heard him say it,'' for "I heard him 
to say it." This little word to, when used before verbs in this manner, is not 
a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so 
considered. 

481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five 
moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the sub- 
junctive, and the infinitive. 

How many particulars does this mood How many tenses, tiien, has it? How 

embrace? 471. Why so many ? 214. many persons? 476. 

What, then, is the imperative mood used What is the meaning of infinitive? 478. 
for? 472. Give an example of command- In what mood is sing, in the phrases, 

ing; one of entreating ; one of exhorting; "John begins to sing," " The boys begin to 

one of permitting. 471. sing," " Thou beginnest to sing" ? 477. 478. 

How many persons has the imperative In what particulars is this mood reek- 
mood? 473. oned not to be limited ? 477, 

What i)erson has it? 473, What, then, is the infinitive mood used 

Has this mood any past tense? Why? for? 479. 
474. What is the usual sign of this mood? 

When I command a person, when, if at 480, 
all, must the performance of the command Is it always expressed? Give an ex- 
take place? 475, ample. 480. 

When, or in what time, must the com- How is the sign to to be parsed ? 480. 
mand itself be given? 475. Why is it parsed with the verb? 480. 

Has the imperative mood, then, any How many moods are there, and what 

future tense ? 475. are they ? 481, 

6* E 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



XXXIX. OF TENSE. 

482. The present tense expresses what is now taking place ; 
as, ''John swims. '^ 

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons lono" 
since dead; as, *^ Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 

484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, as soon 
as, etc., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; 
as, "■ When he arrives, he will hear the news.^' 

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in 
their nature unchangeable; as, '' Truth is eternal ;'' ^' William boldly asserted 
that there is no God ;" not " there w<(s no God.'^ 

486. In animated (1) historical narrations, (2) this tense is sometimes 
used for the imperfect; as, '"He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabi- 
tants ; he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides 
among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

481. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time 
past, however distant; as, ''John died.'' 

488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and 
conveys an allusion to the present time; as, " I have finished 
my letter.'' 

489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we 
use the imperfect tense ; as, ^' John wrote yesterday ;" but when no particular 
past time is specified, we use the perfect tense; as, " I have read Virgil many 
times/' 

490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that is 
past; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually 
remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing 
has been done; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in 
such a manner that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If 
we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers Jwve made great dis- 
coveries in the present century ;"" but if we speak of the last century, we say, 
*' Philosophers 7«orcZe great discoveries in the last century." " He has been 
much afflicted this year." " I have this week read the President's proclama- 
tion." *' I have heard great news this morning." In these instances. He has 
been, I have read, and / have heard, denote things that are past ; but they 

XXXIX. What is the meaning of _29resew^f What does the perfect tense express? 

173. Give an example. 488. 

What does the present tense express? " Jolm wrote yesterday." What tense is 

482. Give an example. 482. the verb in here? 489. 

"Seneca reasons well," What tense is Why is tliis tense nsed ? 489. 

employed here ? Why? 483. "I have read Virgil many times," Why 

In the phrase, " When he arrives," future is the perfect tense used here ? 489. 

time is alluded to : why, then, is the present Wliat do both the perfect and the imper- 

eniployed? 484. feet denote? 490. 

Do we say, " There is no God," or " there How does tlie former denote it ? 490. 

was no God" ? Wliy ? 485. How does the latter ? 490. 

What is the meaning of a^a'wai'ccZ .^ 486. Do we say, " Philo5:ophers made'' oy 

Meaning of narra^io7?s,^ 486. '■'■have made, great fliscoveries in the 

"lie enters the territory," etc. Why is i)resent century" ? Why? 490. 

the present tense used ? 486. Which tense do we use in speaking of 

What is the meaning of w?jr)er/>c/.^ 181. the last century? 490. Give an example. 

How came this term to be used, to denote 49(>. 

an action past and finished?* "I have this week read the President's 

What does the imperfect tense express ? proclamation." " I have heard great news 

487. Give an example. 487. this morning." Which are the verbs used 

Meaning oi perfect f-\ in these two sentences? 490. 

(1.) Lively. (2.) Descriptions, or telling what has been done, 

*See question to 182, f^ioisl^ed, or cpmplete. 



TENSES. — PARTICIPLES. 67 

occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains apart 
of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 

490 — 1. In general, the perfect tense may be used wherever the action is 
connected with the present time, by the actual existence of the work of an 
author, notwithstanding it may have been performed many centuries ago ; 
but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We 
may say, " Cicero has written orations ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero has 
written poems;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. 
Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have, in all ages, claimed 
great powers:" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but 
if we speak of the Druids, as a particular order of priests, which does not now 
exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, '' The Druid priests have 
claimed great powers ;" but must say, "■ The Druid priests claimed great 
powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct. 

491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place 
at some past time mentioned ; as, "• I had finished my letter 
before my father returned. '^ 

492. The first future tense expresses what will take place ; 
as, '^ John will come." 

493. The second future tense expresses what will have 
taken place at or before some future time mentioned; as, ''I 
shall have finished my business before the steamboat starts." 

494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six 
variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
the pluperfect, the first future, and the second future. 



XL. OP PARTICIPLES. 

495. In the phrase, "1 found a man laboring in the field," the word labor- 
ing shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. When I 
say, '^ The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is joined to the 
noun man, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 

496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different parts 
of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking of, we will call such words 
as laboring, participles. 

Wliat do they denote? When did these Give an example. 492. Why called first 

things occur ? 490. future ? * 

To what may the perfect tense in general What does the second future express ? 

be applied? What exception is mentioned ? Give an example. 493. 

490—1. How many tenses are there in all, and 

Do we say, "Cicero wrote,'' or ''has what are they ? 494. 

loritten, orations" ? " Cicero wrote,''' or " has lu what mood is " He runs" ' Why ? 

written, poems" ? Why ? 490—1. 452. " Does he run ?" Why ? 452. " I 

In speaking of priests in general, why do may run"? Why ? 453. "Should I have 

we say, " They have in all ages claimed studied ?" Why ? 453. " If he accept" ? 

great powers" ? 490— 1. . Why ? 456. " If he accepts" ? Why ? 456. 

Can we say, "The Druid priests have " To sing" ? Why ? 479. 

claimed great powers"? What should we In what tense is "He sings"? Whv ? 

say? Why? 490—1. 482. "Did he sing?" Why? 487. "He 

A\hat is the meaning of pluperfect f has read"? 488 Why? ""Had he writ- 

186. ten ?" 491. Why ? " Shall he go ?" 492. 

What does the pluperfect tense express ? "I shall liave gone" ? Why ? 493. 

491. Give an example. 491. XL. What parts of speech does laboring 

Meaning of /wi!!/re ? 177. resemble? Give an example. 495. 

What does the first future express? What is the meaning of jjaWic^Zg.^ 496. 

* See question to 191. 



b6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

49V. All participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from labor comes labor" 
ing ; from beat, beating; from rejoice, rejoicing, etc.: hence, 

498. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective. 

499. When I say, ''John is writing," the participle loriting shows what 
John is now doing, but has not finished ; writing, then, may be called a pres- 
ent participle : hence, 

500. The present participle expresses what is now taking 
place, but not finished. 

500 — 1. This participle alwaj^s ends in ing; m^, singing, fighting, loeeping, 
loving, etc. There are many words with this termination, which are not par- 
ticiples ,* as, morning, evening, which are nouns; uninteresting, unsatisfying, 
which are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed from verbs will 
furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all 
other words of the same termination ; as, for instance, uninteresting, we know, 
is not a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterest, from which to 
form it. 

501. ''The letter is written." Here the participle w^nVfeji shows that the 
act of writing is past and finished ; it may, then, be called a perfect parti- 
ciple ; hence, 

502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and 
finished. 

502 — 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense 
with having ; thus, having written, having sung, etc. Here written and sung 
are perfect participles. 

503. " John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless per- 
ceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing; also, that the 
participle is composed of two words, having and written; it may, then, be called 
a compound particijjle, and because it denotes also an action past and finished, 
it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence, 

504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took 
place before something else mentioned. 

504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having 
before the perfect participle of any verb; as, having fought, having ciphered. 



XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 

505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you know, 
because it makes sense joined with having ; as, having struck. 

From what are all participles derived? Having written, having sung. "Which are 

497. Give an example. 497. the perfect participles here ? 502. 

What is a participle? 498. "John, haviug written his letter, sealed 

When I say, "John is writing," what it." Which took place first, the writing 

does writing show ? 499. or the sealing? 503. 

What, then, may it be called ? 499. Of what is this participle composed ? 503o 

What, then, is a present participle? What, then, may it be called? 503. 

600. What does having writLeyi denote in ref- 

What does this participle always end in? erence to time and action ? 503. 

600—1. Give an example. 500—1. What may it thence be called? 503. 

Are all words ending in ing participles? What does a compound perfect participle 

Give an example of nouns of this termi- express ? 504. 

nation. Of adjectives. 500 — 1. IIow is this participle formed? 504. 

How, then, can the participle be distin- Give an example. 504. 

guished ? Give an exami)le. 500 — 1. XLI. Striking, struck, having struck. 

"The letter is written." What does the Here are three different participles: can 

participle written show here ? What, then, you tell which is the present ? Why ? 500. 

may it be called? 501. Perfect ? Why ? 602. Compound perfect ? 

What is a perfect participle ? 502. Why ? 503. 

How may this participle always be What kind of participle is struck f hdb. 

known? Give an example. 502 — 1. How do you know this? 505. 



VERBS. 69 

506. Is, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to he; as/' I 
am, you are, he is:" now, by joining is with struck, we can form the passive 
verb is struck ; ''John strikes Joseph," is active; but, "Joseph is struck by 
John," is passive. 

507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the 
same: hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a 
different form, the •precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes 
find, contributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language. 

508. On examining the' conjugation of the verb to be, you will discover 
that it has eleven variations : viz., am, art, is, are, luas, wast, laere, loert, been, 
be, and being. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these varia- 
tions and the perfect participle of any active-transitive verb. Thus, taking 
was, and joining it with the perfect participle of the \yord beat, namely, 
beaten, we form the passive verb was beaten, to which prefixing an object, or 
nominative case, we have the phrase, "William was beaten." 

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always 
retains the same mood, tense, number, and person that the verb to be has, 
before it is incorporated with the participle; thus, "He has been," is the 
indicative perfect, third person singular ; then, " He has been rejected," is 
likewise the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, 
therefore, be difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person of any pas- 
sive verb, if you are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. 

From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule : 

510. All passive verbs are formed bv adding the perfect 
participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be. 



XLII. OP THE AUXILIARY YERB. 

511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the 
principal verbs are conjugated. 

512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- 
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have, and will. 

513. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that 
tense is called a compound tense; and the tense formed by the principal verb 
alone is called a simple tense. 



XLIII. SIGNS OP THE MOODS. 

514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or 
by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as/' Who 
comes here ?" 

Of what verb is the verb is a variation ? What fact is worthy of notice ? 509. 
606. What mood, tense, number, and person 

Will you form a passive verb with is is "He has been"? 509. "He has been 

and struck f 506. rejected"? 509. 

" .John strikes Joseph." How may the What will make the mood, tense, etc., of 

sense of this sentence be expressed by a passive verbs familiar ? 509. 
passive verb? 506. How are all passive verbs formed ? 510. 

What advantage does the use of the pas- XLII. What is the meaning of auxil- 

sive verb often afford us? 507. ' iary.f 196. 

To what does it contribute ? 507. What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 

How many variations has the verb to be Will you name them ? -512. 

in all ? 508. What are they? 508. What verbs are used both as auxiliary 

What will always compose one part of a and principal verbs ? 512. 
passive verb ? 508. What the other part ? XLIII. What is the sign of the indica- 

608, tivemood? 514. Give an example. 514. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries 
may, can, must, mighty could, would, and should ; sls, "I 
could love/^ etc. 

516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the 
conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether ^ and lest; as, 
^^ Unless he repent,'' etc. 

517. The infinitive mood has usually' for its sign the word 
to ; as, to sing, 

518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its 
always being in the second person, and by its agreement 
with thou, or ye, or you, expressed or understood; as, 
'' Depart thou," etc. 



XLIY. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of 
the verb ; as, weep, remain, etc. ; excepting the occasional use 
of do ; as, ^'I do learn." 

520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, 
except did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the 
verb is not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it 
follows that it is in the imperfect ; as, '' I fought." 

521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have ; as, 
have loved, 

522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved, 

523. The first future has for its sign shall or will; as, 
shall or will love, 

524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will 
have ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved, 

525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 

526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 
52*7. The potential mood has four tenses. 

528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 

529. The imperative mood has one tense. 

What is the sign of the potential mood ? Sign of the perfect? 521. Give an ex- 

515. Give an example. 515. ample. 521. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive Sign of the pluperfect? 522. Give an 

mood? 516. Give an example. 516. example. 522. 

What is the sign of the infinitive mood ? ^^S" of the first future ? 523. Give an 

517. Give an example. 517. example 523. 

TXT, . . ^, . r. ^ . .. « Sign of the second future? 524. Give 

What IS the sign of the imperative? an example 624 

518. Give an example. 518. Ho^^ many "tenses has the indicative 
XLIV. What is the sign of the pres- mood ? 525. 

ent indicative ? 519. Give an example. How many the subjunctive ? 526. 

519. . How many the potential ? 527. 
Sign of the imperfect? 520. Give an How many the infinitive ? 528. 

example. 520. How many the imperative ? 529. 



VERBS. 



71 



XLY. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

530. When I ask you to raise your voices in reading, you readily under- 
stand what I mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat 
peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive 
nature of verbs. 

531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and 
tenses. 

532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ac- 
tive VOICE, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 

533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im- 
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- 
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, 
or of d only when the verb ends in e ; as, 

Fres, Tense. Imp, Tense. Perf, Participle, 
I favor. I favored. Favored. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and 
perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular 
VERB ; as, 



Pres, Tense, 
I am. 



Imp. Tense. 
I was. 



Perf, Participle. 
Been. 



535. The regular verb love, and the irregular verb to be, 
are conjugated as follows : — 

CONJUGATION. 

TO LOVE AND TO BE. 

active AND PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTED. 
INDICATIVE MOOD, 

PRESENT TENSE, 



A 


CTIVE VOICE. 


PA£ 


sSIVE VOICE, 




JfEUTER, 




Singular. 




Singular, 




Singular, 


1 Pers, 


I love. 


1 Pers. 


I am loved. 


1 Pers. 


I am. 


2 Pers. 


You love. 


2 Pers. 


You are loved. 


2 Pers. 


You are. 


3 Pers. 


He loves. 


3 Pers. 


He is loved. 


3 Pers, 


He is. 




Plural, 




Plural. 




Plural. 


1 Pers, 


We love. 


1 Pers. 


We are loved. 


1 Pers. 


We are. 


2 Pers, 


You love. 


2 Pers. 


You are loved. 


2 Pers. 


You are. 


3 Pers. 


They love. 


3 Pers, 


They are loved. 


3 Per^. 


They are. 



XLV. What does voice meaa in. gram- 
mar? 530, 

What is the meatiing of CGnjugationf 
217. 

What is the conjugation of an active 
verh styled ? 632. 

What the conjugation of a passive verb? 
532, 



When are verbs called regular? 533, 
Give an example. 533. 

Will you repeat after me the present 
tense, and name the imperfect tense and 
perfect participle, of the verb favor f love f 
533. 

When is a verb called irregular? 534. 
Give an example. 534. 



7 


^ 


ENGLISPI GRAMMAE 


• 








IMPERFECT TEiq^SE. 








Siriffular. 




Singular. 




Singulmr, 


1. 


I loved. 




1. I was loved. 


1. 


I was. 


2. 


You loved. 




2. You were loved. 


2. 


You were. 


3. 


He loved," 




3. He was loved. 


3. 


He was. 




Plural, 




Plural. 




PlvraL 


1. 


Wejoved. 




1. We were loved. 


1. 


We were. 


2. 


You loved. 




2. You were loved. 


2. 


You were. 


3. 


They loved. 




3. They were loved. 
PERFECT TEHSE. 


3. 


They were. 




Smgnlar. 




Singular. 




Singnlar, 


1. 


I have loved. 




1. I have been loved. 


1. 


I have been. 


2. 


You have loved. 




2. You have been loved. 


2. 


You have been. 


3. 


He has loved. 




3. He has been loved. 


3. 


He has been. 




Plural. 




Plural 




Plural. 


1. 


We have loved. 




1. We have been loved. 


1. 


We have been. 


2. 


YoH have loved. 




2. You have been loved. 


2. 


You have been. 


3. 


They hare loved. 




3. They have been loved. 
PLUPERFECT TENSE. 


3, 


They have been. 




Singular. 




Singular. 




Singular. 


1. 


I had loved. 




1. I had been loved. 


1. 


I had been. 


2. 


You had loved. 




2. You had been loved. 


2. 


You had been. 


3. 


He had loved. 




3. He had been loved. 


3. 


He had been. 




Plural, 




Plural. 




Plural. 


1. 


We had loved. 




1. We had been loved. 


1. 


We had been. 


2. 


You had loved. 




2. You had been loved. 


2. 


You had been. 


a. 


They had loved. 




3. They had been loved. 


3. 


They had been. 






FIRST FUTTrRE TENSE 


Is 






Singular, 




Singular. 




Singular. 


1. 


I shall or will love. 


1. I shall or will be 


1. 


I shall or will be. 


2. 


You shall or 


will 


loved. 


2. 


You shall or will 




love. 




2. You shall or will be 




be. 


3. 


He shall or 


will 


loved. 


3. 


He shall or will 




loye. 




3. He shall or will be 
loved. 




be. 




Phtral, 




Plural. 




Plnral. . 


1. 


We shall or 


will 


1. We shall or will be 


1. 


We shall or will 




love. 




loved. 




be. 


2. 


You shall or 


will 


2. You shall or will be 


2. 


You shall or will 




love. 




loved. 




be. 


3. 


They shall or 


will 


3. They shall or will be 


3. 


They shall or will 




love. 




loved. 




be. 






SECOISTD FUTURE TEKSE. 






Singular. 




Singidar, 




Singular. 


1. 


I shall have loved. 


1. I shall have been 


1. 


I shall have been. 


2. 


You will have loved. 


loved. 


2. 


You will have been. 


3. 


He will have loved. 


2. You will have been 


3*. 


He will have been. 








loved. 












3. He will have been 












loved. 








Plural 




Plural. 




Plural 


1. 


We shall have loved. 


1. We shall have been 


1. 


We shall have been. 


2. 


You will have loved. 


loved. 


2. 


You will have been. 


3. 


They will have loved. 


2. You will have been 


3. 


They will have been. 








loved. 












3. They will have been 












loved. 







Will yon conjugate love in the present perfect? first futnre? second fati?re? 
tense, active voice, indicative mo(xl? present passive? imperfect? jxerfect ? 
536. In the imperfect? perfect? pin- pluperfect? first f«t\ir&? second future? 



TENSES. 



73 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PKESENT TEKSE. 





Singular, 




Singular. 






Singular. 




1. 


I may o?' can lave. 


1. 


I may or can be loved. 


1. 


I may or can b 


e. 


2. 


You may or can love. 


2. 


You may or 


can be 


2. 


You may or can be. 


3. 


He may or can love. 
Plural, 


3. 


loved. 
He may or 
loved. 

Plural. 


can be 


3. 


He may or can 
Plural, 


be. 


1. 


We may or can love. 


1. 


We may or 


can be 


1. 


We may or can 


;be. 


2. 


You may or can love. 




loved. 




2 


You may or can be. 


3. 


They may or can love. 


2. 


You may or 


can be 


3*. 


They may or can be. 








loved. 














3. 


They may or 
loved. 


can be 












IMPERFECT TENSE. 










Singular. 




Singular. 






Singular, 




1. 


I might, could, would, 
or should love. 


1. 


I might, could, would, 
or should be loved. 


1. 


I might, could, 
or should be. 


would. 


2. 


You might, could. 


2. 


You might. 


could. 


2. 


You might, 


could. 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or 


should 




love. 




be loved. 






be. 




3. 


He might, could, 


3. 


He might. 


could. 


3. 


He might. 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or 


should 




love. 




be loved. 






be. 






Plural, 




Plural. 






Plural, 




1. 


We might, could, 


1. 


We might, 


could, 


1. 


We might. 


could, 




would, or should 




would, ar 


should 




would, or 


should 




love. 




be loved. 






be. 




2. 


You might, could, 


2. 


You might. 


could, 


2. 


You might. 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or 


should 




love. 




be loved. 






be. 




3. 


They might, could. 


3. 


They might, 


could, 


3. 


They might. 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or 


should 




love. 




be loved. 






he. 










PERFECT TENSE. 










Singular. 




Singular. 






Singular, 




1. 


I may or can have 


1. 


I may or can have 


1. 


I may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 




2. 


You may or can have 


2. 


, You may or can have 


2. 


You may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 




3. 


He may or can have 


3. 


He may or can have 


3. 


He may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 






Plural, 




Plural. 






. Plural. 




1. 


We may or can have 


1. 


We may or can have 


1. 


We may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 




2. 


You may or can have 


2. 


You may or can have 


2. 


, You may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 




3. 


They may or can have 


3. 


. They may or can have 


3. 


, They may or can have 




loved. 




been loved. 






been. 





Will you conjugate the verb to he, or am, 
in the present? the imperfect? perfect? 
pluperfect ? first future ? secoud future ? 

Will you name the first person singular, 
of the present indicative, active, and pas- 
sive, of love, and the first person singular 
of the verb to be ? 



The second person in like manner? the 
third? the first person plui'al ? second per- 
son plaral ? third ? first person singular, im- 
perfect ? second person ? third ? first person 
plural? secon(i person plural? tliird ? first 
person singular, perfect ? second person ? 
third? first person plural ? second? third? 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular, 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should have lov- 
ed, 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 
Plural, 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
have loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 










Singular. 




Singular, 




1. 


I might, could, would, 


1, 


I might, couldj 


, would, 




or should have been 




or should 


have 




loved. 




been. 




2. 


You might, could. 


2. 


You might. 


could. 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




have ibeen loved. 




have been. 




3. 


He might, could. 


3. 


He might, 


could. 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




have been loved. 




hav^e been. 






Plural, 




Plural, 




1. 


We might, could, 


1. 


We might. 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




have been loved. 




have been. 




2. 


You might, could. 


2. 


You might, 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




have been loved. 




have been. 




3, 


They might, could, 


3. 


They might, 


could, 




would, or should 




would, or 


should 




have been loved. 




have been. 





Singular, 

1. If I love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he loves. 

Plural, 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 

Singular, 

1. If I love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 

Plural, 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 



Singular, 

1. If I loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 

Plural, 

1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Common Form. 

Singular, 

1. If I am loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 

Plural, 

1. If we are loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If they are loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Singular, 

1. If I be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

Plural, 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 
IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Common Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I was loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 

Plural, 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I am. 

2. If you are. 

3. If he is. 
Plural, 

1. If we are. 

2. If you are. 

3. If they are. 

Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 
Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I was. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he was. 
Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Will you conjugate love in like manuer, 
through each person and voice of the plu- 
perfect? first and second futures? present 
potential ? imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? 
present subjunctive, common form? sub- 
junctive form? imperfect, common form? 
subjunctive form? perfect? pluperfect? 
first and second futures ? 



Will you conjugate lore in the present 
indicative active? imperfect? perfect? plu- 
perfect? first and second futures ? present 
passive? imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? 
first and second futures ? present indicative 
of to be ? imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? 
first and second futures ? 



TENSES. 



75 





Singular, 




1. 


If I loved. 


1. 


2. 


If you loved. 


2. 


3. 


If he loved. 
Plural. 


3. 


1 


If we loved. 


1. 


2. 


If vou loved. 


2. 



3. If they loved. 



Subjunctive Forra. 

Singular, 
If I were loved. 
If you were loved. 
If he were loved. 

Plural. 
If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. 



Singular. 

1. If I have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If he has loved. 
' * Plural. 

1. If we have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If they have loved. 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I have been loved. 

2. If you have been loved. 

3. If he has been loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been loved. 

2. If you have been loved. 

3. If they have been loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If they have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved. 

2. If you had loved. 

3. If'he had loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we had loved. 

2. If you had loved. 

3. If they had loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will 

love. 

2. If you shall or will 

love. 

3. If he shall or will 

love. 



PLUPERFECT TEXSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I had been loved. 

2. If you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we had been loved. 

2. If you had been loved. 

3. If they had been loved. 

FIRST FUTURE TEi^SE. 

Singular. 

1. If I shall or will be 

loved. 

2. If you shall or will be 

loved. 

3. If he shall or will be 

loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I had been. 

2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 
Plural. 

1. If we had been. 

2. If you had been. 

3. If they had been. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will 
be. 

2. If you shall or will 
be. 

3. If he shall or will 
be. 



Will you conjugate love, through each 
person of the present indicative active? 
passive? the neuter verb to hef also in the 
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first and 
second futures ? present potential ? imper- 
fect? perfect? pluperfect? present sub- 
junctive, in both forms ? perfect? pluper- 
fect ? first and second futures ? 

What is the present infinitive active of 
love? present passive? present of to hef 
perfect active of lovef perfect passive? 
perfect of to he ? present participle active 
of love ? present passive ? present of to 
bef perfect of lovef perfect of to hef 
compound perfect of love, in the active ? 
in the passive of to he f 

In what voice and mood is " I love" ? 
" They love" ? " They are loved" ? "Are 
they loved ?" '• I do love" ? What is the 
force of do f In what voice and mood is 
*' The man loved" ? " He has loved" ? 



" He has been loved" ? " Has he been 
loved ?" " She had loved" ? " She had 
been loved" ? '' We shall love" ? " We 
shall be loved" ? " Shall T have been 
loved?" "May I love?" "May I be 
loved ?" " She may have loved" ? " She 
mav have been loved" ? " If I love" ? 
" If he be loved" ? " If he is loved" ? " If 
I love" ? " If I were loved" ? " If I was 
loved" ? 

In what tense is " They love" ? " Ye 
are loved" ? " She did love" ? " We were 
loved"? "They shall love"? "They 
shall be loved" ? " I may be loved" ? " If 
she has been loved"? 

In what number and person is "l 
love"? "We love"? "He does love"? 
"The man did love"? "The men were 
loved"? "If he love"? "If I was"? 
" If I were" ? " If ye have been" ? " If 
ye have loved" ? " You may be loved" ? 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



Plural, Plural. Plural. 

1. If we shall or will 1. If we shall or will be 1. If we shall or will 

love. loved. be. 

2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shall or will 

love. loved. be. 

3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 

love. be loved. be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 




Singular. 




Singular. 


1. If I shall have lov- 


1. 


IM shall have been 


1. 


If I shall have been. 


ed. 




loved. 


2. 


If yon shall have 


2. If you shall have lov- 


2. 


If you shall have been 




been. 


ed. 




loved. 


3. 


If he shall have 


3. If he shall have lov- 


3. 


If he shall have been 




been. 


ed. 




loved. 






Plural. 




Plural. 




Plural. 


1. If we shall have 


1. 


If we shall have been 


1. 


If we shall have 


loved. 




loved. 




been. ' ' 


2. If you shall have 


2. 


If you shall have been 


2. 


If you shall have 


loved. 




loved. 




been. 


3. If they shall have 


3. 


If they shall have 


3. 


If they shall have 


loved. 




been loved. 




been. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD 








PRESENT TENSE. 






Singular. 




Singular. 




Singular. 


2. Love you, or do you 


2. 


Be you loved, or do 


2. 


Be you, or do you 


love. 




you be loved. 




be. 


Plural. 




Plural. 




Plural. 


2. Love you, or do you 


2. 


Be you loved, or do 


2. 


Be you, or do you 


love. 




you be loved. 




be. 




mrmiTivE mood. 






Pres. To love. 


P; 


-es. To be loved. 


Pi 


^-es. To be. 


Perf. To have loved. 


Perf. To have been loved. 


Perf. To have been. 






PARTICIPLES. 






Pres. Loving. 


P^ 


y-es. Being loved. 


Pres. Being. 


Perf. Loved. 


Perf. Loved. 


Pi 


37 f. Been. 


Compound Perf. Having 


Compound Perf . Having 


Compound Perf. Having 


loved. 




been loved. 




been. 



536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thoii, in the 
conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take it 
separately, or may be taught it in connection with the other persons of the 
verb, by substituting thou for i/ou, in the foregoing conjugation. 



Is love, as, " They love," a regular or ir- 
regular verb ? Whv ? 533. active or pas- 
sive ? 439. What mood is it in ? Why ? 
452. tense ? why ? 482. number ? person ? 
What does love agree with ? Rule YII. 

Is a?'e, as, " They are," a regular or irreg- 
ular yerb? why? 534. passive or neuter? 
why? 450. What mood is it in? why? 
452. tense? why? 482. number? person? 
Rule for its agreement ? VII. 

What is the present imperative of love f 
present infinitive ? 

What mood and tense is " Love you" ? 
*' To have been loved" ? 

Will you conjugate learn in the pres- 
ent indicative active ? passive ? perfect 
active ? perfect passive ? present poten- 



tial active ? passive ? imperfect active ? 
passive ? imperative present active ? pas- 
sive ? perfect infinitive active ? passive ? 
present subjunctive active in both forms ? 
passive ? 

What kind of verb (that is, regular or 
irregular), what voice, mood, tense, num- 
ber, and person, is " I sing"? "We are 
formed" ? " He is" ? " You are deter- 
mined" ? "It rains"? "It has happen- 
ed" ? " The man was respected" ? " Tlie 
boys did stu-ly" ? "If he improve" ? " Un- 
less lie repent" ? "Altliough slie be dis- 
appointed" ? " He may depart" ? " Depart 
now"? "To love"? "To sing"? "To 
be sung"? "To rejoice"? "To have 
wept" ? " To have been seen" ? " To have 
been found" ? 



TENSES. 



77 



Synopsis with Thotj. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Thou lovest. 
Inqy. Thou lovedst. 
Perf. Thou hast loved. 
Plup. Thou hadst loved. 

1 Fut. Thou shalt or wilt 

love. 

2 Fat. Thou wilt have 

loved. 

537. 
Pres. Thou mayst or 

canst love. 
Imp. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst love. 
Perf. Thou mayst or 

canst have loved. 
Plup. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have loved. 



538. 

Pres, If thou lovest. 
Imp, If thou lovedst. 

539. 

Pres. If thou love. 
Imp. If thou loved. 

540. 

Perf. If thou hast loved. 
Plup. If thou hadst 
loved. 

1 Fut, If thou shalt or 

wilt love. 

2 Fut. If thou shalt have 
loved. 



Thou art loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
Thou hast been loved. 
Thou hadst been loved. 
Thou shalt or wilt be 

loved. 
Thou wilt have been 

loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD, 
Thou mayst or canst be 

loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be loved. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

Common Form, 
If thou art loved. 
If thou wast loved. 

Subjunctive Form, 
If thou be loved. 
If thou wert loved. 

Common Form, 
If thou hast been loved. 
If thou hadst been loved. 



Thou art. 
Thou wast. 
Thou hast been. 
Thou hadst been. 
Thou shalt or wilt be. 



Thou wilt have been. 



Thou mayst or canst be. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been. 



If thou art. 
If thou wast. 

If thou be. 
If thou wert. 

If thou hast been. 
If thou hadst been. 



If thou shalt or wilt 

be. 
If thou shalt have been. 



If thou shalt or wilt be 

loved. 
If thou shalt have been 

loved. 

Interrogative Form, 

541. INDICATIVE PEESENT. 

Singular, Singular. Singular, 

1. Do I love ? 1. Am I loved ? 1. Am I ? 

2. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? 2. Are you? 

3. Does he love ? 3. Is beloved? 3. Is he? 

Plural. Plural, Plural, 

1. Do we love? 1. Are we loved? 1. Are we ? 

2. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? 2. Are you ? 

3. Do they love ? 3. Are they loved ? 3. Are they? 

542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that the 
tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding 
ones of the indicative, except the following, namely, the present and imperfect 



Will you give the sy^nopsis of /owe joined 
with thou through the indicative active? 
passive ? Neuter verb to be f 

Will you name the synopsis of learn 
in the first person in the active voice, 
through each mood and tense ? W^ill you 
repeat the two tenses of the infinitive 
and the three participles ? Synopsis of 

7* 



honor in like manner through the passive? 
also the synopsis of the verb to he. f Give 
synopsis of desire in the active, like love; 
in the passive; verb to he; first person 
plural active ; passive; to he; third person 
active ; passive ; to he. 

What mood does the subjunctive resem- 
ble iu its tenses ? 542. 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



of the verb to he ; the present and imperfect of the passive ; the present and 
the second future of the active. The last corresponds in termination, but 
not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of 
the conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form 
when no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly under- 
stood, as, "Were I to go, he would not follow;'* "Had he known me, he 
would have treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go," and, "If he 
had known." Examples of this description are conjugated »s follows : 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 



543. 



Singular, 

1. Were I. 

2. Were you. 

3. Were he. 

Singular. 

1. Had I loved. 

2. Had you loved. 

3. Had he loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Plural, 
L Were we. 

2. Were you. 

3. Were they. 

Plural. 

1. Had we loved. 

2. Had you loved. 

3. Had they loved. 



544. The second person singular of all verbs * formerly (1) ended in st, 
as, " Thou hast," " Thou wast," etc. This form is still retained by that 
respectable class of persons denominated (2) Friends, and in the Sacred 
Scriptures (3). 

545. Etli, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4) 
very generally till within a recent (5) period, especially on grave (6) and 
didactic (7) subjects; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear;" " Sim- 
ple multiplication teacheth to repeat," etc. But the custom of the present 
day is decidedly (8) against this form of expression. 

546. The Scriptures abound with (9) instances of the use of the pronoun 
yeiox you ; as, "Ye are the salt of the earth;" but it is scarcely to be met 
with in any standard works of modern date. 

647. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb. 



Singular, 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He loveth or loves. 



INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

Singular, 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 



3. He is loved. 



3. He is. 



What exceptions ? 542. 

How does the second future differ? 542. 

Will you explain the difference ? 542, 

What is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood? 516. Is it always expressed? 542. 
Give an example. 542. Will you supply 
the conjunction ? 

Will you conjugate the .verb to he in 
the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense, 
without its usual sign? In like manner 
conjugate love in the pluperfect. 

Will you conjugate love in the present 
active, interrogative form? passive? neu- 
ter verb to he f 

In what voice, mood, tense, number, 
and person is " Do I study ?" " Did she 
study ?" " Were they dismissed ?" " Are 
we ?" 

In what did the second person singular 
of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an 
example. 544. 

Meaning o^ formerly ? 544. 



By whom is this termination still re- 
tained? 544. In what writings ? 544. 

Meaning of Sacred Scriptures f 544. 

What form of the third person singular 
obtained till recently? 545. Give au ex- 
ample. 545. 

Meaning of obtained? 545. Of recent? 
545. 

On M-liat subjects was the termination 
eth used in writing? 545. 

Meaning of ^?'ave.^ of didactic? 545. 

In what writings do we find ye used for 
you? 546. 

Is it common in modern works ? 546. 

Will you conjugate love in the present 
active, according to the ancient usage? 
547. passive ? neuter verb to be? 

In what number and person is "He 
hath"? "He hates"? "Thou lovest"? 
" Thou hast" ? " He learneth" ? " Ye 
learn" ? " He rejoiceth" ? " Thou art re- 
joiced" ? " Thou art" ? " He weepeth" ? 



Excepting art. (1.) Some time ago. 

4.^ Prevailed. (5.) Late. (6.) Serious. 
8.) Positively. (9.) Have many. 



^1:] 



(2.) Called. (3.) The Bible. 

(7.) Abounding in precepts or instruction. 



VERBS. 79 

Plural, Plural. Plural. 

1. We love. 1. We are loved. 1. We are. 

2. Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 

548. J^^ For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the 
learner is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which pro- 
fes8 to furnish him with a sure and infallible guide to the true and proper 
use of the English language. 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number and 

"person, 

RULE VII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative ease in number and 

person. 

RULE VIIL 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

^'Willictm was admired for his prudence,'^'^ 

549. William is a peopek noun, of the third peeso^^, singular 
NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDEE, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE to wos ad- 
mired^ according to Rule YI. 

Was admired is a regular passite yerb, from the verb to admire. 
— ^^ Pres. admire; Imp. admired; Perf. part, admired. 1. I was ad- 
mired ; 2. You were admired; 3. He o?- Wilham was admired" — 
in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singular 
NiniBER, and agrees with William., according to Rule YII. 

For is a preposition. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
BEE, MASCULINE GENDEE, and agrecs with William., according to 
Rule Y. — ^'JSfom. he; Poss. his" — in the possessive case, and gov- 
erned hj j^rudence^ by Rule I. 

Pri/(^^?ic^isa COMMON noun, of the third peeson, singulae numbee, 
NEUTER gender, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemcd by/(?r, by Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

1. 

"John was applauded for his elo- "The girl was ridiculed by her 
quence." companions." 

" The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for her virtu- 
minster Abbey." ous conduct." 

" Thomas has been esteemed." " James will be rewarded by his 

" The business will be regulated." instructor." 

"Addition teacheth"? " He that hath tuas a'lmired? 549. for? 549. Ids? 549. 

ears"? "He that siiiiietli"" ? "Thou lov- prudence f bAQ. 

edst"? "Thou mightst, conldst, woiildst, What is a passive verb? 444. How 

or shouldst have lamented" ? formed? 510. Why is admired regular? 

What is the rnle for the agreement of 53o. 

the verb? rule for the nominative? rule Why is /^/r a preposition ? 246. Why is 

by which verbs govein the objective case? Ids a pronoun ? 

"William was admired for his prn- Will y^u now parse the remaining exer- 

dence." Will you parse William f 549. cises ? 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. 

" We mav be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed." 

^^ He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." 
"William would have been de- " W^e should not (1) be easily (1) 
throned." disheartened in a good cause." 

" i/* he be learned.^'^ 

550. If IS Si COPULATIVE CONJUNCTION. 

Be learned is a eegular passive yerb, from the verb to learn 
— '■'• Pres, learn; Imp. learned; Perf. part learned. 1. If I be 
learned; 2. If you be learned; 3. If he be learned" — in the sub- 
junctive MOOD, SUBJUNCTIVE FORM, PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PERSON, 

SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrecs with he^ according to Rule VII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappoint- 

" If I am noticed." ed." 

" Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected." 

" Although they are respected." *' Except he repent." 

" Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." 

"America was discovered by Co- "The little girl was assisted by 

lumbus." Susan." 

" John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." 

" John's brother was wounded by " Pleasure is followed by pain." 

him." 

2. 

" An obedient son is deservedly re- " Unless great labor had been be- 

spected by his friends." stowed on William, he would 

"An idle boy will be punish- have disappointed the expecta- 

ed." tions of his parents." 

"Without knowledge a man is "He will not (1) mind without 

commonly (1) despised." corporal punishment." 

3. 

" The boy who visited me in Sep- "They that seek knowledge will 

tember died in the city of Bos- find it." 

ton." "That lion which was exhibited 
" The man whom I found, perished in this town has been killed 

in a storm of snow." by his keeper." 

4. 

" I found (2) John and William " I have assisted him and his sis- 

(3) in the garden with their ter in many difficulties, to no 

father and mother." (3) (4) purpose." 



XLVII. OP mUEGULAR VERBS. 

551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by adding to the present 
tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, 

"If he be learned." Will you parse iff Why in the subjunctive form ? 463. 
550. he learned f 550. Why in the subjuiic- Will you parse the remaining exercises 
tivemood? 556. in these lessons? 

(1.) Adverb. (2.) Irregular verb. (3.) For WiUiaino^nd. mother &^V^J Rule XI. (4.) Adjective. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



81 



Pres. tense. 
Go, 



Imperf, tense. 
Went, 
Began, 



Perf. Participle. 
Gone. 
Begun. 



552. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Those marked r. admit likewise a regular form. 



Present. 
Abide, 
Ani. 
Arise, 
Awake, 
Bear, to bring ? 

forth, S 

Bear, to carry, 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend. 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 
Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 
Burst, 
Buj, 
Cast, 
Catch, 
Cbide, 
Choose, 
Cleare, to stick ) 

or adhere, 5 
Cleave, to split, 
Cling, 
Clothe, 
Come, 
Cost, 
Crow, 
Creep, 
Cut. 

DsLve, to venture. 
Dare, to chal- r 

leng», 
Deal, 
Dig, 
Do, 
Draw, 
Drive, 
Drink, 
Dwell, 
Eat, 
Fall, 
Feed, 
Feel, 
Fight, 
Find, 
Flee. 
Fling, 
Fly. 
Forget, 
Forsake, 
Freeze, 
Get, 
Gild, 
Gird, 
Give, 
Go, 

Grave, 
Grind, 
Grow, 
Have, 



Imperfect. 


Per/, or Pass. Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Pare. 


abode, 


abode. 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung. r. 


was, 


been. 


Hear, 


heard. 


heard. 


arose. 


arisen. 


Hew, 


hewed. 


hewn. r. 


awoke, r. 


awaked. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid- 


bare. 


born. 


Hit, 
Hold, 


hit. 
held, 


hit. 
held, 


bore, 


borne. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


began. 


begun. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit. r. 


bent, 


bent. 


Know, 


knew. 


known. 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


besought, 


besought. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


bid, bade. 


bidden, bid. 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


bound. 


bound. 


Leave, 


left. 


left. 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Lend, 


lent. 


lent. 


bled. 


bled. 


Let, 


let. 


let. 


blew. 


blown. 


Lie, to lie down 


lay, 


lain. 


broke. 


broken. 


Load, 


loaded. 


laden, r. 


bred, 


bred. 


Lose. 


lost, 


lost. 


brought, 


brought. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


built, 


built. 


Meet, 


met. 


met. • 


burst, 


burst. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown. r. 


bought. 


bought. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


cast, 


cast. 


Put, 


put. 


put. 


caught, r. 


caught, r. 


Read, 


read. 


read. 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


chose, 


chosen. 


Rid, 


rid. 


rid. 


regular. 




Ride, 


rode. 


rode, ridden.t 




Ring, 


rung, rang. 


rung. 


clove or cleft, cleft, cloven. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


clung, 


clung. 


Rive, 


rived. 


riven. 


clothed, 


clad. r. 


Run, 


ran. 


run. 


came. 


come. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r- 


cost. 


cost. 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


crew, r. 


crowed. 


See, 


saw. 


seen. 


crept, 


crept. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


cut, 


cut. 


Sell, 


sold. 


sold. 


durst, 


dared. 


Send, 


sent. 


sent. 






Set, 


set, 


set. 


r. 




Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


dealt, r. 


dealt, r. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapes- 


dug, r.. 


dug. r. 


Shave, 


shared. 


shaven, r. 


did. 


done. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


drew, 


drawn. 


Shed, 


shed. 


shed. 


drove, 


driven. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


drank. 


drunk. 


Show, 


showed. 


showu. 


dwelt, 


dwelt, r. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


eat or ate, 


eaten. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


fell. 


falleu. 


Shrink, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


fed. 


fed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


felt. 


felt. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


fought. 


fought. 


Sing, 


sung, sang 


sung. 


found. 


found. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


fled, 


fled. 


Sit, 


sat. 


sat. 


flung. 


flung. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slain. 


flew, 


flown. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden- 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Sling, 


slung, 


SlUTig. 


froze. 


frozen. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


siuuk. 


got, 


got.* 


Silt, 


slit. r. 


slit or slitted. 


gilt, r. 


gilt- r. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


girt, r. 


girt. r. 


Sow, 


sowed. 


sown. r. 


gave. 


given. 


Speak, 


spoke. 


gpoken- 


went. 


gone. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


graved. 


graven, r. 


Spend, 


spent. 


spent. 


ground. 


ground. 


Spill, 


spilt, r. 


spilt, r. 


grew, 


grown. 


Spin, 


spun. 


spun. 


had, 


had. 


Spit, 


spit, spat. 


spit, spitten.l 



XLVI. When is a verb called irregular ? 
551. 

Will you name the present and imper- 
fect tenses, also the perfect participle, of 
go f begin f aia ? arise f awake f bear f 



(to carry.) hidf bitef break f choose f 
do f drink ? eat f forget f have f known f 
lief (to lie down.) mow f rise f seef 
throw f weave ? write f 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its componud, forgotten, is still in good use. 
t Midden is nearly obsolete. X Spitten is nearly obsolete. 



F 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. 


Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect, 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


split, 


split, r. 




Take, 


took, 


taken. 


spread, 


spread. 




Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


sprung, sprang 


sprung. 




Tear, 


tore. 


torn. 


stood, 


stood. 




Tell, 


told. 


told. 


stole, 


stolen. 




Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


stuck, 


stuck. 




Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


stung, 


stung. 




Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


stunk. 


stunk. 




Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


strode or strid, 


Btridden. 




Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


struck, 


struck or stricken. 


Wax, 


■waxed, 


waxen, r. 


strung, 


strung. 




Wear, 


wore. 


worn. 


strove, 


striven. 




Weave, 


wove. 


■woven. 


strewed, or 


C strown or strowed, 


Weep, 


•wept, 


wept. 


strewed, 


I strewed. 




Win, 


won. 


won. 


swore, 


sworn. 




Wind, 


■wound, 


wound. 


sweat, r, 
swelled. 


sweat, r. 
swollen, r. 




Work, 


wrought, 


( wrought or 
I worked. 


swum, swam, 


swum. 




Wring, 


■wrung, 


•wrung. 


swung, 


swung. 




Write, 


■wrote. 


written. 



82 



Present. 
Split, 
Spread, 
Spring, 
Stand, 
Steal, 
Stick, 
Sting, 
Stink, 
Stride, 
Strike, 
String, 
Strive, 
Strow, or 

strew, 
Swear, 
Sweat, 
Swell, 
Swim, 
Swing, 

553. We say, '^ I have seen/' " I had seen/* and " I am seen/' using the 
participle see?! instead of the verb saw : hence, 

IS'OTE YI. We should use participles, only, after have, and 
had, and the verb to be, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
^^ John has ivritten his copy,''^ 

554. Has written is an irregulab actiye-transitiye verb, 
from the verb to write — ^' Pres. write; Imp, wrote; Perf. part. 
written. 1. I have written ; 2. You have written ; 3. He or John 
has vmtten'' — in the indicative mood, perfect tenfe, third 
PERSON, singular NUMBER, and agrees with John, by Eule 

John, copy, and his, are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



" Job has struck John." 

" John has been struck by Job." 

" The men caught the thief in the 

tavern." 
" The thief was caught by the men 

in the tavern." 
"A wise son will make a glad 

father." 



" Tlie act was done by William." 
^' James found his little brother in 

the boat." 
" The instructor makes good pens." 
''The farmer ploughs the ground 

in spring." 
'' I may spend my time in the 

country." 



Will you correct, in accordance -with 
Note Vi., the following examples from 
the Int above ? 

"John has wrote." 

"He done it well." 

" The Sim has rose " 

"The sun risen yesterday in a cloud." 

"I see him yesterday." 

" He has did his task." 

"The birds have flew away," 

"The birds flown or flew." 

"The post is drove into the ground." 

" He begun to write." 

"The task is began." 

"I had went with him." 

"My brother has not spoke.^* 

"The cloth is wove." 

*' The boys run swiftly." 

"The thief has stole my watch.*' 



" His copy w^as wrote well." 

" He was smote on his cheek." 

" John was awoke by tlie noise." 

" My father has came." 

" He come yesterday." 

" Mary has chose the better part." 

"He drunk to excess." 

"The book was g«ve to me." 

"His friends have forsook liim." 

"He was not forsook by his chil- 
dren." 

"The laborer worked for me forty 
days." 

" He was took and bound." 

"John has written his copy." Will you 
parse haa writien ? 

Why is has writien an irregular verb ? 
551. Why active? 439. Why transitive? 
440. 



EXERCISES. 



83 



" John is at home." 
" Rufus rode into the country." 
" The sun will shine." 
" The thief was confined in jail." 
"The horse ran with great vio- 
lence." 

"If he will assist me, I shall be 
much (1) obliged to him." 

" If he be virtuous, then he will be 
happy." 

" If he is happy, then I am con- 
tented." 

" Had he mentioned that circum- 
stance, I should have avoided 
my present calamities." 

"Although he acknowledged his 

" Thou hast benefited me." 
" Ye make no pretensions." 
"This doctrine hath no follow- 

ers." 
" If thou love me," 
"If thou art more comfortable, I 

heartily rejoice." 

" If Thomas, who is at school, re- 
turn in season, I will visit you." 

"The boys whom I admonished 
have reformed." 

" The man whose life was in danger 
returned in safety." 

"The task which the instructor 



2. 



3. 



" He abode in peace." 
" They would be cruel." 
" We may have been negligent." 
" The boys should have been stu- 
dious." 
" William was in town." 

faults, still he would not rec- 
ompense me." 

" I will write him, lest he neglect 
my business." 

" Should I be disappointed, I shall 
despair." 

" Unless he repent, he will not be 
pardoned." 

" Were I ^ in your place, I would 
relieve him." 

" Dost thou hear me ?" 

" Hath he many advisers ?" 

" Ye do always err." 

" Thou shalt surely die." 

"If thou hadst obeyed me, thou 
wouldst not have been disap- 
pointed." 

imposed was performed with 
reluctance." 

"The measure v/hich he adopts 
will succeed." 

" I have known a little child that 
exhibited the prudence of ma- 
ture years." 



4. 



XLYII. GOYEKNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

555. When I say, '^ John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infinitive 
mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say that it 
is governed by begins. 

^' He is beginning to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle 
beginning ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning. 

'* He is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager ; 
we therefore say that it is governed by eager. 

" He has an opportunity to learn.'' Here, the infinitive, to learn, is 
governed by the noun opportunity, because it follows the noun. 

In like manner the infinitive may be governed by a pronoun ; as, '' There 
is a fine opportunity for him to learn :^* hence, 



XLYI. " John begins to read," In what 
mood is to readf 555. Why ? 479. By what 
is it governed ? 555. Why ? 555. 

" He is beginning to read." What gov- 
erns ^• read in this case ? 555. 

" He is eager to learn." V.'hat governs 
to learn in this case ? 555. Whv ? 555. 



" He has an opportunity to learn." 
What part of speech governs to learn in 
this example? 555. Why? 555. 

"opportunity for him to learn." 

What does the infinitive here fol- 
low? By what, then, is it governed? 
555. 



(1.) Adverb. 



* See 543. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XII. 

^The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs^ participles^ 
adjectives J nouns^ and pronouns. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
''''James begins to learn.^'' 

556. To learn is a regular transitive verb — " Pres. learn ; 
Imp, learned; Perf. part, learned ^^ — in the infinitive mood, 
PRESENT tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to Rule XII. 

James and begins are parsed as before. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

" George desires to learn." ^' A knowledge of the rules of 

" He is eager to learn." grammar teaches us to write 

" He has a desire to study." correctly." 

" It seems to please John." " He should seek to obtain knowl- 

" William has come to see us." edge." 

" They are determined to ex- " We may be taught to write, read, 

eel." and spell." 

Omission of TO, the usual Sigii of the Infinitive. 

"John saw the man strike (1) the "I heard the clock strike." 

boy." " " The tutor bade him do it." 

" The instructor made him sub- '^ The soldiers dare not rebel." 

mit." " My uncle let the boys play in the 
"They need not proceed in such garden." 

haste." "See (2) the blind beggar dance." 

Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by 
conjunctions or adverbs ; as, '^ The summit of a mountain so 
high as to be invisible.'' 

EXAMPLES. 

"They are about (3) to depart." "He desired no more (4) than (5) 

"He is wise enough (3) to study." to know his duty." 



XLYIII. 

557. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two 
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance 
which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen- 
tence in which they are used; as, ^^ The sun is setting;'* here the participle 
setting is said to refer to the noun sun : hence, 

What, then, may be regarded as a rnlo " They are about to depart." By what 

for the 2:overnment of the infinitive ? XII. is the infinitive here governed? What is 

" James begins to learn." Will you parse the note for this? VII. 

to learn/ Jtrrms? begins? 556. XLYIII. What is a participle ? 498. 

Is in ever omitted? 480. "The sun is setting." What is setting f 

Will you now parse the exercises in the 557. To what, then, does netting refer? 

lessons which follow? 557. Rule ? XIII. 

What is the infinitive mood used for ? 479. Will you now parse selling in full ? 

(1.) Strike is governed by Rule XII. 

(2.) See is ia the imperative, agreeing with thou or you, understood, by Paile VII. 

(3.) Adverbs. (4) Noun. (5.) Conjunction. 



PARTICIPLES. 85 

RULE XIII. 

Participles refer to nouns. 
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"T/ie wind is rising, '^^ 

558. Rising is a PRESENT ACTIVE participle, from the irregu- 
lar verb to rise — ''Pres, rise; Imp, rose; Perf, part, risen'' — and 
refers to wind^ according to Eule XIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." 

" The sun is rising." " I have been writing." 

" The trees are growing." " I found him crying." 

"John was dancing." " I left him rejoicing." 

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

"T/ie rising sun cheers ws." 

559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise—. 
^^Pres, rise; Imp. rose; Per/, part, risen'' — and belongs to sun^ by 
Eule IV. 

exercises in syntax CONTINUED. 

2. 
" The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the twink- 

declining years." ling stars." 

" The roaring winds alarm us." " The roaring cataract strikes us 

"The rippling stream pleases with awe." 

us." " The laboring man should not be 

" The singing-master visited me." defrauded." 

3. 

"Having dined, I returned to "Having slept, he recovered his 

school." strength." 

*' Having fought bravely, they were " Having retired to rest, he was 

at last (1) overcome." seized with violent pain." 

"John, having exercised too vio- "The thief, having escaped, was 

lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that 

region." 
4. 
"William returned, mortified at "A child left to follow his own 

his loss." inclinations is most commonly 

"The stream, swollen by the rains, ruined." 

overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded, he be- 

" The man accustomed to his glass came vain." 

seldom reforms." 

Will you parse the next lesson ? What kind of participle is "Having 

Will you parse rising, in the sentence, dined"? 504. Why? 504. 

" The rising sun" ? 559. Why is it called a Who dined, in the phrase, "Having 

participial adjective ? Ans. Because it de- dined, I returned to school" ? 

scribes, like an adjective, and implies action, To what, then, does having dined refer? 

like a participle. Rule XIII. Will you now parse the re- 
Will you now parse the next lesson? maining lessons ? 

(1.) At last IS au adverbial phrase. 



86 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

5. 

" A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, and 

parents/' rendered him deserved assist- 

^* We must not neglect any known ance." 

^^ duty.'' " William befriended the deserted 

"My father took the forsaken man." 

6. 

"The men, being fatigued by labor, effect, was severely and justly 

sought rest in sleep." punished." 
"William, being dismissed from col- "The tree, having been weighed 

lege, retired to the country." down for a long time by abun- 

" Thomas, after having been re- dance of fruit, at last (1) fell to 

peatedly admonished to no the ground." 

RULE XIV. 

Active participles^ from active-transitive verbs, govern the 

objective case. 

''''James is heating John,^^ 

560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by 
beating, by Eule XIV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" John is striking William." immediately set off for Bos- 

" Susan is studying her lesson." ton." 

*' Mary has been repeating her les- ^' I spied the cat watching a 

son to her mother." mouse." 

"The teamster, seeing the stage ^'Having given directions to his 

upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family 

it." and took the stage for W^ash- 

" Having obtained my request, I ington." 

2. 
''iJe delights in fighting.''^ 

561. Fighting h a participial noun, in the objective case, 
and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. 

exercises in syntax continued. 
1. 

"Job was exhausted by wrest- "Job practises fencing daily." 

ling." "The instructor teaches reading, 

"Mary gained a livelihood by writing, and spelling in his 

sewing." school." 

" Walter excels in writing." " Whispering in school is forbid- 

" Fishing delights me." den." 

"Beating John." Will you parse Jb/m f 561. Why is fighting called a participial 

560. Beating? 558. noun ? Ans. Because it implies action, like a 

Will you parse the remaining exercises participle, and has, also, the sense of a noun, 

in the lesson above? Will yon parse the rest of the exercises 

" In fighting." Will you pfiTse fighting f in this lesson ? 

(1.) At last is an adverbial phrase. 



EXERCISES. 



87 



562. ^'You will much oblige me by sending those books.'^'^ 

Sejiding is a participial noun, in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. 

Books is a common noun, of the third person, plural num- 
ber, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by the 
active participle sending, according to Rule XIV. • 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



''Mary's reading has been useful 
in improving her taste in 
composition." 

"I am discouraged from under- 
taking this study.'' 

" A good instructor takes no delight 
in punishing." 



" James derives pleasure from 

reading useful books." 
"John is above doing a mean 

action." 
"Parents are pleased at seeing 
the progress of their chil- 
dren." 

The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article 
the before it, and the preposition o/ after it; as, "By the observing of truth, 
you will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it may be said, 
** By observing truth," etc., omitting both the article and the preposition. If 
we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition without the 
article, the expression will appear awkward : hence. 

Note VIII. The definite article the should be used before, 
and the preposition of after, participial nouns, or they should 
both be omitted. 



EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

"In the regarding his interests, 
he neglected the public af- 
fairs." 

" He was sent to prepare the way 
by preaching of repentance." 

" Keeping of one day in seven (1) 
is required of Christians." 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

' William calls George." 
' John's father will reward his in- 
dustry." 



^ By the observing these rules, he 

will avoid mistakes." 
' He prepared them for the event 

by the sending to them proper 

information." 
' In writing of his letter, he made 

some mistakes." 



^ George's father's carriage passed 
the tavern." 

^ If William return, he will be dis- 
appointed." 

^ John has beaten his little brother 
most shamefully." 



"John will be punished for his 
insolence." 

" W^e may improve under our in- 
structor, if we choose." 

"He who would excel in learn- 
ing, must be attentive to his 
books." 

" She begins to improve." 



"By sending those books." WiU you 
parse sending f 562. hooks f 562. 

Will 3'ou parse the remaining exercises 
in this lesson ? 

From what are present participles 
formed? 497. 

How may participles in ing be distin- 
guished from other parts of speech of the 
same termination ? 500. 



Instead of saying, "By the observing 
these rules," what should I say? Why? 
Note VIII. 

Will you now parse and correct the ex- 
ercises under Note VIII.? 

Will you parse the promiscuous exer- 
cises in syntax ? Next take those to be 
written. 



(I.) Seven is a numeral adjective, belonging to days, understood, by Note 1. 



88 E N G L I S H G R A M M A R . 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

563. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive 
verb ? One, containing a neuter verb ? One, containing a passive verb ? 
One, expressing the same sense as the last in an active form? Will you 
compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood? One, in the 
subjunctive mood ? One, in the imperative mood ? One, in the infini- 
tive mood? One, having an adjective in the superlative degree? One, 
Iiaving the article cm correctly used before a vowel ? One, having an 
adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative significa- 
tion ? One, containing the relative whose f One, containing which f One, 
with what used as a compound pronoun? One, having ivho used as an 
interrogative pronoun ? One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, 
common form ? 

Will you construct one or more sentences w^hich will make sense with 
the word truth contained in them ? One, with the word wisdom contained 
in it ? One, with the word knowledge f One, with the word learning ? 
One, with the word science f 

Will you construct a sentence about 'prudence f One about history ? 
One or more on the following subjects, namely, geography , gar denning, 
farms, orchards? 

Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make 

sense? "Industry health." "By — we acquire ." "In 

youth characters ." " Arithmetic — business/' 

" Washington live hearts of his P 



XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

564. The verbs have, he, ivifl, and do, when they are unconnected with a prin- 
cipal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs; 
as, ^^ We have enough;" ^' 1 a^n grateful;" ^' He wills it to be so ;" '^ They do 
as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries; as, "I shall 
have enough ;" ^' I will be grateful," etc. 

565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the fol- 
lowing account of them. 

566. Bo and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater 
energy and positiveness ; as, " I do speak truth;" "I did respect him;" 
"Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative (1) 
sentences; as, '^ I do not fear;" ^' I did not write." They are almost univer- 
sally employed in asking questions which may be answered by yes or no ; as, 
^ Does he learn?" "Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply (2) 
the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subse- 
quent sentence, unnecessary ; as, '^ You attend not to your studies as he does /" 
(i.e. "as he attends," etc.) "I shall come, if I can; but if I do not, please 
to excuse me ;" (i.e. "if I come not.") 

567. May and wight express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; 
can and could, the power; as, "It may rain;" "I may write or read ;" "He 
might have improved more than he has ;" " He can write much better than 
he could last year." 

XLIX. Which are the auxiliary verbs ? What effect have do and did in sen- 

512. tences? 566. Give an example. 566. 

What is an auxiliary verb? 511. Will you give an example in which the 

What is a principal verb?* repetition of the principal verb is unneces- 

When are have, he, will, and do principal sary ? 566. 
verbs ? 564. Give an example of each. 564. What do ynay and might express ? 567. 

(1.) Denying. , (2.) Fill up. * See question to 197. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 89 

568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as, 
" We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not pre- 
varicate." (1) 

569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2) resolution 
and promising; in the second and third persons, it only foretells; as, *'I 
will reward the good, and will punish the wicked ;" *' We will remember 
benefits, and be grateful ;" ** Thou wilt or he will, repent of that folly ;" 
" You, or they, will have a pleasant walk." 

570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the 
second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens; as, ^'I shall 
go abroad;" ^* We shall dine at home;" "Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit 
the land ;" "Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" " They shall account for 
their misconduct." The following passage is not translated (3) according to 
the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and ivill : " Surely good- 
ness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in 
the house of the Lord forever." It ought to be '^ will follow me," and *'I 
shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried 
out, " I will be drowned ! nobody shall help me !" made a sad misapplication 
of these auxiliaries. 

571. These observations respecting the import (4) of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences; for when the sentence is 
interrogative, just the reverse, (5) for the most part, takes place: thus, " I 
shall go,'' "You will go," express event (6) only; but *' Will you go?" 
imports intention ; and " Shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. But 
" He shall go," and " Shall he go ?" both imply will ; expressing ©r referring 
to a command. 

572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these 
auxiliaries likewise undergoes (7) some alteration, as the learner will 
readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed ;" " If he shall pro- 
ceed;" "You shall consent;" " If you shall consent." These auxiliaries are 
sometimes interchanged (8) in the indicative and subjunctive moods, to con- 
vey the same meaning of the auxiliary; as, " He U/'i7Z not return ;" "If he 
shall not return ;" " He shall not return ;" " If he will not return." 

573. TFomZc? primarily (9) denotes inclination of will: and should, obliga- 
tion; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple 
event. 

574. Bo and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the 
following 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. I do. I have. 

Imp, 1 did. I had. 

Per/. I have done. I have had. 

Plup. 1 had done. I had had. 

1 Fnt, I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 

2 Fat. I shall have done. I shall have had. 

What is the use of must f 568. days of my life ; and I will dwell in the 

What does vjill intimate in the first per- house of the Lord forever." 570. 

son singular? plural ? 569. Give an exam- In what consists the mistake in the 

pie. 56v». In the second and third persons? expression which the foreigner used when 

569. Give an example. 569. he fell into the Thames ? 570. 

What does shall intimate in the first What do shall and ivill denote in inter- , 

person ? 570. Give an example. 570. rogative sentences ; as, " Shall I go ?" 

In what particular is the translation of "Will you go?" 571. 

the following passage incorrect? "Surely What do would and should primarily 

goodness and mercy shall follow me ail the denote ? 573. 

1.^ To shun the truth. (2.) Shorrs. (3.) Expressed. (4.) Meaning. (o.) Contrary. 

" What happens. (7.) Suflfers. (8.) Exchanged one for the other. (9.) In the first place. 



[1:1 



90 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

575. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. 

Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should 

should do. have. 

Per/. I may or can have done. I may or can have had. 

Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should 

should have done. have had. 

576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres. 1. If I do. If I have, etc. 

57G— 1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres, Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have. 

577. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. To do. To have. 

Pei-f. To have done. To have had. 

578. PARTICIPLES. 

P7-es. Doing. Having. 

Per/. Done. Had. 

Comp. Per/. Having done. Having had. 



L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of the moods and tenses. 

580. The following are the principal ones: 

Pres. Tense, Imp. Tense. Per/. Participle, 

May, Might, (Wanting.) 

Can, Could, 

Will, Would, 

Shall, Should, 

Must, Must, 

Ought, Ought, 

Quoth, 

581. Of these, ought and musty you perceive, are not varied. 

582. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the 
same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an 
infinitive ,* as, " He ought to study ;" " He ought to have read." In this 
last example, ought is in the imperfect; and in the first, it is in the present. 
This we determine by the infinitive which follows the verb : thus, when the 
present infinitive follows ought, ought is in the present tense ; but when the 
perfect infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 

583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and in an intran- 
sitive, or neuter, signification. Thus, to spread is an active- transitive verb 
in the sentence, ^' He spread the report through the town ]" but it is intran- 
sitive in the sentence, ** The report spread through the town." 

Will you repeat the synopsis of do Which are not varied ? 581. 

through all the moods? of Jiavef How are ought and quoth always used? 

• Will you conjugate do in the present 582, 

tense? have in the perfect tense? How can you tell when ought is in the 

What is the perfect participle of do f of present tense ? 682. 

have? the compound perfect of dof of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 582. 

have? Give an example of each tense. 582. 

L What are defective verbs ? 579. When is to flatten transitive, and when 

Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive? 583. 

with their imperfect tenses ? 580. How, then, are verbs often used? 583. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 91 

584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
become a compound active-transitive verb; as, to smile is intransitive; it 
cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the 
passive form. We cannot say, ^' She smiled him," or, '* He was smiled ;" but 
we say, very properly, " She smiled on him ;" " He was smiled on by her." 

585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast 
means to throw; as, ** He cast a stone at her." I'o cast up, however, means 
to compute; as, "He casts up his accounts." In all instances in which the 
preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be considered 
a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 

586. There are some verbs which, although they admit an objective case 
after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action ,• as, ** I resemble 
my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily reconciled by reflect- 
ing that, in all such cases, the verb has a direct reference to its object. Of 
this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, etc. 

587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are 
thence called neuter-passive verbs ; as, " John goes home to-night." Here 
goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, "John is gone home," is 
gone is a neuter-passive verb. Again, in the phrase, "William comes," cornea 
is an intransitive verb; and in the phrase, "William is come," is come is a 
neuter-passive verb. 

EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 

" William had had many advan- " He has had many precious oppor- 

tages before he improved them tunities." 

in a proper manner." " John will do as his instructor 
" A good scholar will not do what directs." 

(1) is forbidden by his instruc- ^'He may have had time." 

tor." 

2. 

" I own this book." " J cannot believe him." 

" Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to 
" He retains his place." trust him." 

3- 
** The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." 

ground." " She smiled on John." 

" The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune in 

counts often." every undertaking." 

4. 

" The instructor has come." " Mary was gone before her mother 

'' Our instructor has come." came." 

"William has gone to visit his "When they came to town, they 

parents." made many purchases." 

" Susan has gone." 

How can an intransitive verb become Is resemble, strictly speaking, a transitive 

transitive? 584. Give an example. 584. verb? 586. 

What does to cast mean ? 585. Why does it admit an object after it ? 586. 

Meaning of to cast vp f 585. There are several verbs of this class : will 

When may the preposition be reckoned a you name some of them ? 586. 

part of the verb ? 685. What is a neuter-passive verb? 587. 

How should it be considered in parsing ? Give an example. 587. 

585. Will you now parse the next lessons ? 

(1.) What stands for " that which," or " the thing which." Apply Rules V., VI., and VIII. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LI. OF ADVERBS. 

588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 

589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long sincef 
none at all, at length, in vain, hy no means, a great deal, etc., are denominated 
adverbial phrases, when they are used to qualify verbs or participles, by ex- 
pressing the manner, time, or degree of action. 

590. The definite article tlie is frequently placed before adverbs of the 
comparative and superlative degrees^ to give the expression more force ; as, 
" The more he walks, the better he feels/^ When the article is used in this 
sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase, and 
be so considered in parsing. 

591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly are adverbs. 
The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb like : thus, from 
manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentlemanlike. Hence, 

592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its signification 
the idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb. 

RULE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbSy participles^ adjectives^ and other 

adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"in vain we look for perfect happiness, "^"^ 

593. In vaon is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, ac- 
cording to EULE IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" John has come again, but Wil- ^' William acted very nobly." 

liam has not." " I will by no means consent." 

" Very many persons fail of happi- " He wrote a long letter a few days 

ness." ago." (1) 

" A great many evils are incident " John was writing carelessly." 

to man in his wearisome jour- '' I have admonished her once and 

ney through life." again." 

" The instructress has at length " A few days ago, there was much 

arrived." excitement in town." 

LI. What is the meaning of adverb f When are they to be considered ad- 

228. verbial phrases ? 589. 

To AThat is the adverb joined ? 588. Is the article the ever joined to an ad- 

Eor what purpose ? 588. verb ? 590. For what purpose ? 590. 

How many different parts of speech does What do the article and adverb form in 

it qualify? 588. such cases ? 590. 

WhicVi are they? 588. How is it to be considered in parsing? 

What is the definition of an adverb? 590. 

588. How came most words ending in ly to be 

Are adverbs compared ? * considered adverbs ? 591. Give an example. 

Will you compare wisely f 235. soon f 234. 59L 

How are they compared? 236. How can we determine between words 

Will you compare the adverbs muchf ending in /^/, whether or not they are ad- 

tuellf had? ill? 237. verbs? 592. 

Some adverbs are not regular in their What rule do you apply when you parse 

comparison : will yon name one ? 237. an adverb ? IX. 

Will you name four or five adverbial "In vain we look." Will you parse zn 

phrases? 589. vain? 593. 

(1.) A few days ago— 3in adverbial phrase. ■» See question to 234. 



PREPOSITIONS. 93 

Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but to qualify nouns 
or pronouns, we should use adjectives. 

SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND COKKECTED. 
" William writes good."* ^' Harriet dresses neat." 

" Susan studies diligent." ''On^ conditions suitably to his 

"He speaks fluently and reasons a jje speaks correct." 

correct. u ^i^j.y g^^gg admirable." 

" John writes tolerable well, but " He writes elegant." 

readsf miserable." " He reads and spells very bad." 

SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

594. Will you write down a sentence containing a compound active- 
transitive verb ? One, having a neuter-passive verb ? 

Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion ? Two or more, 
about sheep f Two or more, about a cowf One, about an oxf One, 
about a dogf One, about a cat? One, about Africans f One, about 
Indians? One, about fishes? One, about steamboat disasters? One, 
about stage accidents ? 



LII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to show 
the relation between them. 

596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a preposition 
and a verb ; as, " to «^hold," 'Ho mvest/' " to oveAook ;" and this composi- 
tion sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, "to t^72C?erstand," "to with- 
draw." But the preposition more frequently occurs after the verb, and sep- 
arate from it; as, "to cast «^," "to fall o>i." The sense of the verb, in this 
ease, is also materially affected by the preposition. 

598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, some- 
times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered ; as, " They had their 
reward soon after f "He died not longfe^/orey" "He dwells above f but if 
the noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died 
not long before" [that time], etc. 

599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the 
different prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following sentences: 
"He walks with Sb staff bi/ moonlight;" "He was taken by stratagem, and 
killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, " He 

Will you next parse the remaining exer- With what are verbs not untreqnently 

cises? compounded? 596. Give an example. 596. 

When should we use adverbs ? Note Where is the preposition more fre- 

IX. qnently placed? 596. Give an example. 

When adjectives ? Note IX. 596. 

"William writes good." Wherein is this Will you name four prepositions which 

sentence incorrect ?* in many instances appear to be adverbs ? 

Will you now parse and correct the re- 598. 

maining exercises ? How may they be converted into prepo- 

LII. What IS the meaning of preposi- sitions again ? 598. 

Hon f 244. " He walks by a staff with moonlight." 

What are prepositions ? 595. Will you correct this sentence, and then 

Will you repeat the list ? 247. repeat the phrase ? 

*, For the adjective good, we should use the adverb well, accordine to Note IX. 
t Reads agrees with JoJin understood, and is, therefore, connectea with writes by the con- 
junction but, agreeably to Rule XI. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

walks hy a staff w7iVA moonlight;'^ " He was taken with stratagem, and killed 
hy a sword -,*' and it will appear that they differ in signification more than one, 
at first view, would be apt to imagine. 

RULB X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

'"''John lives within his income, "^^ 

600. Within is a preposition. 

Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
NUMBER, NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by 
loithin, according to Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"Thomas made his fortune by He made the sun to shine by 

industry." day, and the moon (1) to give 

" Susan labors with her needle for light by night." 

a livelihood." " Beneath the oak lie acorns in 

" Respecting that affair, there was great abundance." 

a controversy." "John, who is at all times watch- 

" In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will 

and all things that are in it. attend to that concern." 

SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepositions 

to make sense? "John was — the house when he was seized a 

fit." " The busy bee — summer provides food — the a]3proaching 
winter — the prudence — a rational being." 

Will you supply the objects to the following? " James was catch- 
ing ." " He was beating ." "He supports ." 

Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following ? " was 

running." " was dancing." 

Will you supply verbs in the following? " A dutiful child his 

parents." " Grammar us correctly." 

Will you compose two or more sentences about hoy^f One, about 
whales f One, about snakes f One, about foxes f One, about parents ? 
One, about brothers f One, about sisters f One, about uncles f One, 
about aunts f 



LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to con- 
nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make 
but one. 

Will you repeat the rule respecting tlie What is a simple sentence? 253. Give 

government of nouns by prepositions ? X. an example. A compound sentence ? 256. 

"John lives within his income." Will Give an example. 

yow \>?ivs,e within? 600. income f 600, Why called compound? 254. 

Will you now take the remaining exer- LIII. Meiinmg o{ conjunction? 257. 

cises to be parsed ; after which, those to be What is a conjunction ? G02. 

written ? Meaning of copulative f 264. 

(1.) The sense is, " He made the moon." Moon, then, is in the objective case, governed bj 
made understood, and connected with sun, by Eule XI. 



INTERJECTIONS. 95 

603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- 
tences; as, ''Blessed is the man ivho feareth the Lord." 

604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite 
only words: as in the following sentences: "Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these forms 
of expression contains two sentences, namely, the first, " Duty forbids vicious 
indulgences ;" " Interest forbids vicious indulgences :" the second, " Wisdom 
governs us;" " Folly governs us." 

RULE XI. 

Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense^ and 

nouns or pronouns of the same case, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

605. " William virites and cipher s,"^^ 

And is a copulative conjunction. 

Ciphers is a regular active-intransitive verb, from the 
verb to cipher — ^* Pres, cipher; Imp. ciphered; Per/, part. 
ciphered. 1. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or William 
ciphers " — in the indicative mood, present tense, third per- 
son SINGULAR, and agrees with William understood, and is con- 
nected with writes by the conjunction and, according to Rule XI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" John ciphers rapidly, and reads " Though he is lively, yet he is 
correctly.'^ not too volatile." 

." If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should 
violently maintain our opin- act accordingly.'^ 

ions, we shall gain but few " Pie denied that he circulated the 
friends.'' repojt." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction iff One, 
containing and ? As many sentences as there are conjunctions which 
follow ; each sentence containing one ? Although. Unless. For. Be- 
cause. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson f One, about Clay ? One, 
about Monroe f One, about Madison ? 



LIY. OF INTERJECTIOIS^S. 

607. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feel- 
ings of the speaker. 

What is the use of the copulative con- What other words, besides coDJiinctions 

junction ? 265. and prepositions, connect ? 603. 

Will you repeat the list of copulative Do conjunctions ever connect sentences 

conjunctions? -66. when they a]>pertr to connect words only? 

What does the word disjunctive signify ? 601. Give an example. 604. 

271. " William writes and cipliers." Will you 

What does the disjunctive conjunction -parse and f 605. dphers^f 605. 

connect? 274. Will you now take the exercises to I>« 

Will you repeat the list of disjunctive parsed and written, ar.d dispose of them? 

conjunctions ? 275. LIV. What is the meaning of inter' 

What is the rule for connecting words jecti'-nf 283. 

by conjunctions ? XI. What are interjections? 607. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

608. We do not say, "Ak I!" "Oh I!" but, *^Ah me!" "Oh me!" 
using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here spoken of, 
you perceive, is of the first person : hence, 

Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the ob- 
jective case, after the interjections Oh 1 1 ah I etc. 

609. AVe say, "0 thou persecutor!" " Oh, ye hypocrites!" "0 thou who 
dwellest," etc. : hence, 

ISToTE XI. The interjections 01 oh I and ah I require the 
nominative case of pronouns in the second person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

610. ^'"Ahnwl I micst perish,"^ ^ 

Ahh an interjection. 

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular 
NUMBER, OBJECTIVE CASE, after akj according to Note X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"O, thou (1) who hast murdered "Ah! unhappy (2) thou, who art 

thy friend !'' deaf (3) to the calls of duty 

" O thou who hearest prayer !'' and honor.'^ 

"Ah me I must I endure all "Oh, happy (4) us, surrounded 

this ?'' with so many blessings.'' 

SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

611. Will you compose a sentence containing alasf One, containing 
oh f One, about volcanoes f One, about lakes f One, about islands ? One, 
about Webster the statesman? One, about a good scholar f One, about 
a poor scholar f One, about a good iaslructor f 



LV. OF THE AGEEEMENT OF NOUNS, 

612. Apposition, ia grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the 
same ease. 

613. When I say, ^' John the mechanic has come," I am speaking of only 
one person, the two nouns, John and mechanic, both meaning or referring to 
the same person ,• eonse<^uently they are put, bj apposition, in the same case : 
hence, 

RULB XV. 

When two or more nouns, in tJie same sentence, ^^ff'^ify ^he 
same thing, they are put, by apposition, in the same case. 

Will 5'ou rep^tt from the list six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex- 

Jections? 285. ercises to be parsed and written ? 

How may an interjection generally be LV. What is the meaning of apposition ? 

knows? 286. 612. 

" Ah me I'"* In wtiat eas« Is me. f 610. "John the mechanic." How many per- 

What rule or note applies to me ? X. eons are here spoken of? 613. Should, then, 

" thoii,'^ etc. What note applies to the two nouns, John and mechanic^ be in 

thou? XI. the same'or in a different case? 613. 

"Ah me I" Wiil you parse ahf me 9 What is the rule for this agreement? 

310. XV. 

(1.) For thovL, apply Note XI. (2.) Agrees with thou, bj Eule IV. 

(3.) Beionga to vjho, by Eule IV. (4.) Applj Eule IV. 



EXEKClbES. 97 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

614. '^Webster, the statesman, has left iis.''^ 

Statesman is a common koun, masculine gender, third per- 
son, SINGULAR NUMBER, in the NOMINATIVE CASE, aDQ put in 

apposition with Webster ^ by Eule XV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
1. 
" John the Baptist was beheaded." '* Cicero, the orator, flourished in 
" David, the thief, was apprehend- the time of Catiline, the con- 

ed." sj)irator.'* 

*' Johnson, the bookseller, has failed " I visit Thompson, the professor, 

in business." often." 

" I consulted Williams, the law- " John, the miller, died yester- 



ver." 



dav. 



2. 

" If John will not go, I will 2:0 mv- " We ^vill inspect the goods our- 

self." (1.) ^ ^ selves." 

*^ You yourself are in fault." " I, I am the man who committed 

^'' They themselves were mistaken." the deed." 

Remark 1. — For the same reason that one noun agrees with aHother in 
«3ase, it agrees with it in number and person also. 

"I, Alexander, by the grace of "We, the representatives of the 
God, emperor of all the Eus- people of these colonies, do 

sias, promulgate this law." make this declaration." 

Remark 2 — When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one so 

qualifying becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so considered in 

parsing. Accordingly. TreuKjut, in the phrase, '' Tremont House,'^ is an 

adjective belonging to House, by Rule IY. 

615. EXEECISES IX SYNTAX. 

"The Marlborough Hotel is situ- "John Dobson was in town yester- 

ated in Washington Street." day." 

"Tlie firm of Messrs. Williams & "John Johnson, the blacksmith,' 

Sons has failed." has broken his leg." 

Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or thing are 
separated by verbs, as, ^'Webster is a statesman,'' it is customary to apply 
one or more of the following rules : 

1. Any verb may have the &ame case after it as he/ore it, when Loth words 
refer to the same thing. 

2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as 
that which next precedes it. 

"Webster, the statesman." "Will yon ''Tremout House."'' What part of speech 

■p^iY^e states'nian? 614. \^ Tremont? Remark 2. IIow n^ed here? 

Will you now parse the next exercises? Remark 2. Will you parse it in full ? 

" I \till go myself." Will you parse wy- Will you now parse all .the exercises 

spJ/f under Remark 2? 

lIow is the compound personal pronoun What is the rule or rules usually ^iven 
formed in the singular? 386. How in the for parsing siatcsmav.m the phrase, "Web- 
plural ? 386. ster is a statesman" ? Remark 3. 1, 2, 3, 4. 

When one noun is pnt in apposition with In the same sentence, Ao Wf^dpr atid 

another, in what particulars does it agree statesman both mean or refer to the same 

with it? Remark 1. person? In what case, then, ought they to 

Will 3'ou now parse the next exercises? be? 61?. By what rule? XV. 

(1.) Myself is a compound personnl pronoun, first person, singular number, nominative 
-.se, and put in apposiiion with /, by Rule XV. 



98 



ENGLISH GKAMMAS, 



Z. Pctfisice verbs of naming, judging, etc., have the same case after them as 
before them. 

4. Neuter verbs have the same cane after them as before them. 

616. The foregoing rules, in tlie opinion of the writer, are wholly unneces- 
sary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him to 
make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. On this 
point, Mr. Murray has the following remark : — 

617. '^ By these examples it appears that the verb to Z>e has no govern- 
ment of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases; so that 
the two cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and 
after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible 
by observing that the words, in the cases preceding and following the verb 
to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, 
^I understood it to be him,' the words it and him are in apposition; that is, 
they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case.^^ 



618. EXEECISES IN 

1. 
^'Webster is a statesman." 
^' John is a good scholar.'^ 
"William will become a distin- 
guished and valuable citizen.'^ 
"She walks a queen/^ (1.) 
"He is styled Lord (1) Mayor (1) 

of London." 
"He was named John." (1.) 



SYNTAX. 



"She moves a queen." (1.) 
"Julius Csesar was that Koman gen- 
eral who conquered the Gauls." 
"Tom struts a soldier." (1.) 
" Will sneaks a scrivener." 
"Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, 
a senseless fellow, obtained the 
kingdom." 



"Susan took her to be Mary." (1.) 
"I took him to be John (2) 

Ogden." 
" We at first took it to be her, but 

afterwards were convinced that 

(3) it was not she." 
"He is not the pei-son who (4) it 

seemed he was." 
"I understood it to be him (1) who 



is the son of Mr. (2) John 

Quincy (2) Adams." (1.) 
" She is not now the person whom 

they represented her (1) to 

have been." 
"' Whom (5) do you fancy them to 

be?" 
" The professor was appointed tutor 

to the prince." 



Remark 3. — It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omit- 
ted; as, " They made him captain;" that is, to be captain. 

3. 
" They named him John." " They proclaimed him king." 

"The soldiers made him general." "His countrymen crowned him 

emperor." 

619. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND COKKECTED. 
"It might have been him, (6) but "She is the person who I under- 



there is no proof (7) of it.' 
"Though I was blamed, it could 

not have been me." 
" I saw one who I took to be she." 



stood it to have been." 
" Who do you think me to be ?" 
"Whom do men say that I am?" 
"Whom think ye' that I am?" 



What office does the verb to oe perform 
between cases? 617. 

Are the cases next before and after it, 
alike, or different? 617. 

What is the opinion of Mr. Murray re- 
specting the cases before and after to he? 
617. 

How does he think it and him should be 



parsed in the phrase, '' I understood it to be 
hin>" ? 617. 

Will you now parse lessons 1, 2, and 3? 

Is the verb to he always expressed ? Re- 
mark 3. Give an example. Remark 3. 

Will you now take the sentences to he 
j)arsed and corrected ; also, those to be 
M-ritten ? 



(1.) Apply Kule XV. (2.) .Remark 2. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) Who is put in appo- 

sition with he, by Rule XV. (5.) Whom ao;rees with them, by Rule XV. (6.) Him should 
be he, to agree with it, according to Rule XV. (7.) APP^y ^n\& VI. 



NOUNS. 99 

620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition? One, 
having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb? One, having a 
noun used as an adjective ? 

Will you construct a sentence having in it the word who? One, 
having whose P One, having ivhom ? One, having what f One, having 
ihatf One, having manf One, having woman f One, having hoy? 
One, having ylrUf One, \i2ivmg parents? 



LYI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

621. To address signifies to sjyeak to ; as, "James, your father has come." 
The name of the person addressed must always be of the second person ; and 
a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, and is wholly 
disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent. Hence, 

RULE XVI. 

When an address is made^ the name of the person or thiyig 
addressed is in the nominative case independent 

EXEECISES IN SYNTAX. 

622. " Jb/in, will you assist me V 

John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular num- 
ber, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the nominative case inde- 
pendent, according to Eule XVI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

"My lords (1), the time has come "Kufus, you must improve your 

when we must take some de- time." 

cisive measures.'^ " Gentlemen of the jury." 

" In making this appeal to you, my " James (1), study (2) your book." 

fellow-citizens, I rely entirely " William, do try to get your lesson 

on your candor." to-day." 

2. 

" Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of 

*' Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among 

" Did you speak to me, girls ?" you." 

LVI. "James, your father has come." When is a noun independent? 621. 

Which word here is the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put inde- 

son addressed ? pendeutly? XVI. 

What is the meaning of to address f In the sentence, "John, will you assist 

621. me?" will you X-)arse John? 622. 

Of what person is a noun when an Will you next parse the rest of the exer- 

address is made? 621. cises in this rule ? 

(1.) Eule XVI. (2.) Imperative mood, and agrees with ihou or you understood, by Rule VIL 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

623. In the phrase, " The sun being risen, we set sail,^' the first clause of 
the sentence, namely, " The sun being risen,"' has nothing to do with the 
remainder : the noun and participle may, therefore, when taken together, be 
said to be in the nominative case independent; but, as we have already one 
case of this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, call this (the 
noun joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence, 

RULE XVII. 

A noun or pronoun before a partieipk., and independent 
of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case 
absolute, 

624. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"The sun (1) being risen (2), we "Wellington having returned to 



departed.'' 

" Egypt being conquered, Alexan- 
der returned to Syria." 

"Shame being lost, all virtue was 
lost." 

"The soldiers retreating, victory 
was lost." 



England, tranquillity was re- 
stored to France." 

" Bonaparte being conquered, the 
king was restored." 

"The conditions being observed, 
the bargain was a mutual 
benefit." 



625. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND CORRECTED. 

"Him (3) only excepted, who was "Him being destroyed, the re- 

a murderer." maining robbers made their 

"Her being dismissed, the rest of escape." 
the scholars behaved well." 



LYIII. OF THE INFINITIYE MOOD. 

Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes 
placed independently ; as, '* To be frank, I own I have 
injured you." 

626. 



"To confess the truth, 

fault." 
"To display his power, he 

pressed his soldiers." 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

I was in "To tell the plain truth, I per- 
suaded him to stay." 
op- " To convince you, I will continue 
here till you return." 



LVII. "The sun being risen, we set 
sail." How many words in this sen- 
tence, used independently, are taken to- 
gether? 623. 

Why is this case denominated the case 
absolute? 623. 

What is the rule for the case absolute ? 
XVII. 

Will you now take the parsing exercises 
under Rule XVII., and then the sentences 
to •be corrected ? 



LVIII. "To confess the truth, I 
was," etc. How is to confess used ? — 
Note XII. 

What is the rule for it ? Note XII. 

What is the infinitive mood used for? 
479. 

How many tenses has it ? 528. 

What is its usual sign ? 517. 

Will you now parse the exercises under 
Note XII. ? 



(1.) In the nominative case absolute with heina risen, by Rule XVII. (2.) Eule XIII. 

(3.) When a noun is in the case absolute, it should be in the nominative case. Him should 
therefore be /ig, by Rule XVII. 



MOOD. 101 

'^ To play is pleasant." What is pleasant? ''To play." The infinitive 
to play is, then, the nominative case to is. '* Thou shalt not kill, is required 
of all men." AVhat is required? "Thou shalt not kill." The verb is re- 
quired, then, agrees with " Thou shalt not kill," as its nominative. Hence, 

626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a 
sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb 
of the third person singular. 

627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"To excel requires much exer- "Thou shalt not kill, is the com- 
tion.'^ mand of God." 

"To abandon friends will sink a "Honor thy father and thy mo- 
man's character." ther, is required of all men." 

"To practise religion is our "To write a fair hand requires 
duty." practice." 

Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to requires, by Note XIII., 
and requires agrees with to excel, by Rule VII. In parsing '' Thou shalt 
not kill/' we first apply Rules VL, VII., and IX. The whole phrase is con- 
sidered the nominative to is required, by Note XIII. 

2. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently the object of a 
transitive verb, as, *' Boys love to play.'* What do boys love? *^ To play." 
The object of love, then, is to play. ^^ Children do not consider how much 
has been done for them by their parents.'* Consider what? ^' Hoio much 
has been done for them hy their parents;'' including for the object of the 
verb the whole phrase in italics. 

Note XIY. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, 
may have an adjective or a participle agreeing with it, when 
there is no noun, either expressed or understood, to which 
the adjective may belong. 

628. EXEECISES IN SYNTAX. 

" To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbor, is 

"To practise virtue Avill be produc- binding on all." 

tive of happiness." " To do good to our enemies, is not 

" To be ridiculed is unpleasant." natural to our hearts." 

Remarks. — Pleasant agrees with ^' to see the sau," by Note XIV. Binding 
agrees with '* Defraud not thy neighbor/' by the same authority. To is 
apply Rule VII. ; to sun, Rule VIII.; to the infinitive to see, Note XIII. 

629. SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

W^ill you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive governed 
by a participle ? One, using an infinitive after a noun ? One, describing 
the manner of playing hall f One, or more, on the manner of playing 
tag f One, on the duty of children to obey their parents ? One, or 
more, on industry ? One, on the business you intend to pursue for life ? 

"To play is pleasant." What is pleasant? Since we have a rule for to Jm^e, as a 

What, then, is the nominative to isF 626-1. verl), there is no necessit)'^ for considering 

Rule? Note XIII. it the object in parsing: what rule, then, 

"Thou shalt not kill, is required of all will you apply to it? XII. 

men." What is required ? Will you name an example in wliich 

. What is the nominative to is rp.quiredf there is part of a sentence used as the 

626-1. Rule? Note XIII. object of a verb? 627. Remark 2. 

Will you now parse the remaining exer- '"To see the sun is pleasant." Will you 

cises under this law? i,?.rse pleasant ? to see? tlief sun f is? 

"Boys love to play." What is the object Will you now parse the remaining exer- 

of lovef 627. Remark 2. cises under Note XIV.? 

9->^ 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LIX. 

630. In the phravSe, " John and James are here," the sense is that ^' John 
and James are both here;'' two persons are therefore spoken of, which ren- 
ders it necessary to use the plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which 
individually are singular : hence, 



RULE XVIII. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns^ of the singular number^ 
connected by and, either expressed or understood^ must 
have verbSy nouns^ and pronouns agreeing with them in 
the plural number. 



631. 



EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. 



'' William and James run.'' "John and Joseph can get their 
*' Mary and Harriet study, and they lessons.'' 

will therefore excel." " Time and tide wait for no 
" You and I are in fault." man." 

"John and Thomas say they in- "My coat and pantaloons were 

tend to study Latin." made by Watson." 

Remarks. — William is one of the nominatives to the verb run. James is 
in the nominative case to the verb r^in, and is connected with the noun Wil- 
liam, by Rule XI. Run agrees with William and James, by Rule XVIII. 

632. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND COEEECTED. 

son is in 



" Mary and her cousin has come." 
'" You and I makes progress in our 

studies." 
"Life and health is both uncer- 
tain." 



"The farmer and his 

town." 
" Susan and her sister is deceitful." 
" William and John both writes a 

good hand." 



Remarks. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb may be 
plural, when it has two nominatives connected by aiid, according to Rule 
XVIII. 

Exception 1. — When and connects two or more nouns in the singular, 
which refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular; as, 
*' Pliny the philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science.^^ 

633. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND COEEECTED. 



"That superficial scholar and 
critic have given new evi- 
dence of his misguided judg- 
ment." 

"There go a benevolent man and 
scholar." 



"In that house live a great and 
distinguished scholar and 
statesman." 

" Mr. Cooper, the sailor and novel- 
ist, visit La Fayette, the patriot 
and philanthropist." 



LIX. When I say, "John and James 
are here," of how many persons do I 
speak ? 

Should vre, then, use is or arp? 630. 

What is the rule for aref XVIII. 

Will you now parse the exercises under 
KuleXVIIl.? 

"William and James run." Will you 
parse William in full? and? James? 
run ? 

Will you parse the next exercises? 

" Mary and her cousin has come." Why 
is this incorrect ? 632. 



Will you parse the succeeding exer- 
cises ? 

"Pliny the philosopher and naturalist 
has greatl}'' enriched science." Why should 
we use }/as, in this sentence, instead of /tare? 
Exception 1. 

'■ That superficial scholar and critic have 
given." Why is have given incorrect? Ex- 
ception 1. 

Wliat is the rule for has c(mie? Excep- 
tion 1. 

Win you correct and parse the remain- 
ing exercises ? 



EXERCISES. 103 

Exception 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, 
have each or every joined with them, the verb must be in the singular number; 
as, '^ Every person, every house, and every blade of grass was destroyed." 

634. SENTENCES TO BE PAKSED AND CORRECTED. 

*^ Every man, and every woman. ^' Each man and each woman were 
and every child, were taken." particularly alluded to in the 

" Every tree, stick, and twig were report of the affair." 

consumed." 
Remark. — Were, in the first of these examples, should be changed to was, 
because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in re- 
spect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken of. 

Note XY. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural 
noun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, "• Every 
hundred years constitutes a century.'^ 

635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED ^ND COERECTED. 

" Every twenty-four hours afford to '^ Every four years add another day 
us Vne vicissitudes of day and to the ordinary number of davs 

night." in a year." 

Remark. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should 

be affords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that " every 

twenty-four hours " signifi.es a simjle period of time, and is, therefore, in 

reality singular. 

Note XYI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col- 
lective noun in the singular, when a part only of the indi- 
viduals are meant ; as, " The council were divided in their 
sentiments.'' When the noun expresses the idea of unity, 
the verb should be singular ; as, ^^ The council was composed 
wholly of farmers." 

Remarks. — In the first of the foregoing examples, we use the plural verb 
were divided, because we refer to the individuals composing the council; but 
if no allusion of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one 
entire body, we should have used the singular verb, according to the common 
rule; as, " The council is composed wholly of farmers.'* 

We apply to council, in the first example, Note XVI. ; to were divided, the 
same note ; and to council, and was composed, in the second example. Rules 
VI. and VII. 

636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" The council were divided in their " My people do not consider." 

sentiments.' ' *' The multitude eagerly pursue 

*' A part of the men were mur- pleasure as their chief good." 

dered." 

In the first example, under Exception 2, " The council were divided." Why not 

why use ivas destroyed, rather than were was? Note XVI. Remarks. Rule? Note 

destroyed? Exception 2. XYI. 

Will you parse the remaiaiug exercises When is a noun called coKe'chre .^ 306. 

under this exception, after havhig cor- In what circumstances would it be 

rected them ? pro]»er to use the singular verb ? Note 

"Every twenty-four hours afford to us." XYI. Give an example. 

Wiiat does "every twenty-four hours" How do you parse council? Note XYI. 

signify, one period of time, or more? Remarks. Were divided? Note XYI. 

What is wrong, then ? Whv? 635. Remark. Remarks. Was composed, in the second 

Wliat is the" rule for this ? Note XY. example ? Note XYI. 

Will you correct and parse the other Will you now parse and correct the 

example ? remaining exercises under this not© ? 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 



637, SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" My people doth not consider." '^ The committee was divided in 
^' The people rejoices in that which their sentiments, and has re- 

should give it sorrow." ferred the business to a general 

"The multitude rushes to certain meeting." 

destruction." 



LX. 

638. Negative means denying ; and affirmative, asserting or declaring posi- 
tively. A sentence in which something is denied is a negative one^ and a 
sentenee in which something is affirmed or positively asserted is an affirma- 
tive one. ''Vice degrades us/' is an affirmative sentence, and "Labor 
does not injure us/' is a negative one. Not, nothing, none at all, hy no meatis, 
in no wise, neither, no, none, etc., are negative terms. 

The phrase, "I have nothing," has one negative, and means, ''I have not 
anything." The phrase, '' I have not nothing/' cannot mean the same as 
'' I have nothing/' but must mean, on the contrary, " I have something." 
-This last, you perceive, is an affirmative sentence, and signifies the same as 
the foregoing one, '' I have not nothing." Two negatives, therefore, are 
equal to an affirmative. Hence, 

RULE XIX. 

Two negatives in the same sentence are equivalent to an 

affirmative. 

639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND COERECTED. 

"Be (1) honest, nor (2) take (3) 

no shape nor semblance of dis- 
guise." 
" Pie is so (4) indolent, that he will 

not do nothing." 
" I did not say nothing." 
" He cannot do nothing acceptable 
to John/' 



" He spends all the day in idleness, 

and I cannot prevail on him to 

do nothing/' 
" He cannot get no employment in 

town." 
" I cannot by no means consent." 
" I shall not take no interest in the 

affair/' 
" I never studied no grammar." 

Remarks. — For nothin>/, in the above examples, read anytliing, in accordance 
with Rule XIX. 



LX. What is the meaning of negative.? 
638. affirmative f 638. 

What is a iiey:ative sentence? 638. An 
affirmative one? 638. Give an example of 
each. 

Will you name a few ne2:ative terms? 
6:^8. 

How many negatives has the phrase, " I 
have nothing/' and what does it mean ? 
6o8. 

Meaning of " I have not nothing" ? 
638. 

How many negatives has it ? 

What kind ot sentence is "I have some- 
thing" ? 638. 

(1.) Be agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII. 
(2 ) For nor read and. 

(3.) Take is in the imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you understood, and is there- 
fore connected to be, according to Kule XI. 
(4.) Adverb. 
* Mood, tense, number, and person. 



What is " I have not nothing " equal to 
in expression ? 638. 

Wliat, then, can we say of two nega- 
tives ? Rule XIX. 

Will you next take the exercises under 
IluleXiX.? 

What is a noun? 4. article? 350. ad- 
jective? 363. pronoun? 381. verb? 43S. 
participle? 498. adverb? 688. preposi- 
tion? 595. conjunction? 602. inter- 
jection ? 607. common noun ? 301. projier 
noun? 302. definite article? SO. indefi- 
nite article? 83. 

How many properties in grammar have 
nouns? 308. How many have verbs?* 



EXERCISES. 



105 



640. PEOMISCUOUS EXEBCISES IN SYNTAX. 



' Deep rivers move with silent 
majesty ; but small brooks are 
noisy.'' 

' Deeds are fruits ; words are but 
leaves." 

^ It is a bad horse indeed that will 
not carry his own provender." 

^ The hog never looks up to him 
who threshes down the acorns." 

' Add not trouble to the grief- 
worn heart." 

' If the counsel be good, it is no 
matter who gives it." 

' By others' faults, wise men cor- 
rect their own." 

' When the world says you are 
wise and good, ask yourself if 
it be true." 

^ Sin and misery are constant 
companions." 



" Power discovers the disposition 

of man." 
'^ Quarrels are easily begun^ but 

with difficulty ended." 
" Force without forecast is of little 

worth." 
" Home was not built in one day." 
" In youth and strength think of 

old age and weakness." 
"All are not saints who go to 

church." 
" To say well is good, but to do 

well is better." 
" No fear should deter us from 

doing good." 
" Pride, perceiving Humility hon- 
orable, often borrows her 

cloak." 
" Say what is good, but do what is 

better." 



641. 



SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 



Will you compose one sentence describing the business of an insti-^c- 
t(yr f One, the business of a doctor f One, the business of a lawyer f One, 
of a dentist? One, of a surgeon f One, of 2b farmer? One, of a black- 
smith? One, of a miller ? One, of o. merchant ? One, of a grocer ? One, 
of an apothecary ? One, of a legislator ? One, of a jwlge ? One, of a 
colonel ? One, of a captain ? One, of a general ? One, of an ageixt in a 
factory ? One, of the direoi&rs. of a hank f 



LXI. 

642. When I say, '^ He taught me grammar," I mean, ^' He taught gram- 
roar to me:" grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and me is governed by 
the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we have two objective 
cases after the verb taught ; and since there are many instances like the pre- 
ceding, in which transitive verbs -are followed by two objective cases, we derive 
the following 



How masy participles are there 2* What 
are they ? 500, 502, 504. 

When is a verb active ? 43^^, 

When transitive ? 440. When intran- 
sitive? 441. How may it be known ? 154. 

Will you decline if thouf hef she? itf 
127. 

Of what person is If mi^? mf their f 
you^ 127. 

What is mood? 451. the indicatire ? 
452. potential ? 453. subjunctive ? 456. 
infinitive? 479. imperative? 472. How 
many tenses has the indicative? 525. 
subjunctive? 526. potential? 527. in- 
fiiiitive? 528. imperative? 529. What 



are the signs of the present tense? 519. 
imperfect ? 520. perfect ? 521. pluper- 
fect ? 5 22. first future? 523. seeond fiv 
ture ? 524. 

Will you now parse the promiscuous 
exereises ? 

Will you next take the sentences to be 
written ? 

LXI. " He taught me £:rammar." What 
does this mean ? 642. What, then, is the 
object of the verb, and by vfhat is grammar 
g^ovemed ? 642. By what is vie governed ? 
642. 

How many objective eases, then, follow 
the verb taught? 642. 



* Thiee. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XX. 

Two objective cases^ the one of a person^ and the other of a 
thincjj may follow transitive verbs^ of asking^ teaching^ 
giving^ etc; a preposition being understood, 

''He taught me grammar. ^'^ 

Remark 1. — In the foregoing example, me and grammar are both governed 
by taught) accordiHg to Rule XX. 

643. EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX. 

" He taught me grammar.'^ " My instructor gave me a valua- 

" William asked me some ques- ble book for my attention to 

tions." study.'' 

" My mother wrote me a precious a oi. ^ i. j i • ^i c 

letter in the month of May." She forbade hiiii the presence of 

"They allowed him his seat in the emperor. 

Congress." ^ "The French denied him the 

" John gave me a detailed account privilege of an American citi- 

of the whole transaction." zen." 



LXII. 

644. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the object of 
the active verb to become the nominative to the passive verb : as, " He taught 
me grammar ;" '' Grammar was taught me." In some few instances, just the 
reverse takes place ; as, "■ I was taught grammar ;" here the object, grammar, 
is placed after the verb : we therefore derive the following 

RULE XXI. 

An objective case may follow j)assive verbs of asking^ teach- 
ing^ and some others ; as^ "- 1 was taught grammar." 

^^^'Apply to /Rule VI. ; to was taught, Rule VII. ; to grammar. Rule 
XXI. 

645. EXERCISES -IN SYNTAX. 

*' John taught me music." " I was taught grammar." 

" Music was taught me by John." ^' The presence of the emperor was 
^' A question was asked me." forbidden Theresa." 

" Theresa was forbidden the pres- " Reading is taught in almost 
ence of the emperor." every schooL" 

What rule is giveu for cases of this de- the object? 644. Give an exam])le. C44. 

scription? XX.? Give an example where the reverse takes 

By Avhat are me and {/rammar governed? place. G4i, 

G42.' Remark 1. Wliere is the object placed ? 644. 

Wili you next parse the exercises under "I was taught graminnr,*' Will you 

Rule XX? parse ff was taught? grammar? 

LXII. What is the natural construe- Will you next take the exercises under 

tion of the passive voice in reference to Rule XXI. ? 



EXERCISES. 



107 



LXIII. 

646. When I say, " He came home last May/' the sense is, when fully ex- 
pressed, " He came to his home in last May.*' " John continued four years 
at the university;" that is, ''during four years." "The horse ran a mile;" 
that is, ''over the space of a mile." "John went that way;" that is, "over 
that way." From these facts we derive the following 

RULE XXII. 

Home, and nouns signifying which way, how^ far, how 
long, or time when, etc., are in the objective case; a 
preposition being understood. 



647. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



" Susan rides out every day." 

" William sleeps comfortably all 

night." 
^ • John was absent from home six 

years." 
" James lived six years at Boston, 

twelve vears at Dedham." 



"He came home last May." 

" John continued four years at the 

university." 
"John went home once a month." 
" Charles studies six hours every 

day." 
" John rode that way." 
" He ran a mile." 

Note XYII. — After the words like and unlike, the prepo- 
sition to or unto is frequently understood; as, ''He is like 
his father;" that is, '' like to his father." '' She is unlike her 
sister;" that is, '' unlike to her sister." 

648. EXEECISES IN SYNTAX. 

" He is like his brother." " John behaves like a man in a 

" William, unlike his father, falsi- violent rage." 

fied his word." " He is unlike any other mortal." 

Note XYIII. — Noans signifying duration, extension, 
quantity, quality, or valuation, are in the objective case, 
without any governing word. The following are examples : 

" The Atlantic Ocean is three thou- " The cart weighs fifteen hundred 

sand miles (1) wide." pounds." 

"William's knife is worth eighteen "The wall which separates China 

pence, or twenty-five cents." from Tartary, commonly called 

" For that article, which is richly the great Chinese wall, is fif- 

worth a dollar, (2) we cannot teen hundred miles long, and 

alwavs get fiftv cents." from twenty to thirty feet in 

"The chasm is fifty feet broad." height." 

Remarks. — (1.) The noun miles is governed according to Note XVIH. 
(2.) Apply Note XVIII. 



LXIII. " He came home hist May." 
What does this mean, wlien more fully 
expressed? 646. Will you parse home? 
May f 

"John continiT'd four years at the uni- 
versity." " Tlie horse ran a mile." What 
do these sentences mean, when fully ex- 
pressed ? 



Will j-ou parse the exercises under Rule 
XXII. ? 

What is the note respecting lilie and 
unliTcef XYII. 

•' He is like his father." How is father 
parsed ? Note XVII. 

Will you next take tlie remaining exer- 
cises under Note XYII. ? 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note XIX. — The conjunction as, after siich, many, and 
same, is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the 
following examples : 

"He receives into his school as "He took such books as pleased 

many scholars as (1) apply/' him." 

"Our instructor, who is scrupu- "He exhibited the same course 

lously exact in the execution of of conduct as was once before 

justice, punishes severely all exhibited on the same occa- 

such as disobey his commands/' sion." 

Remarks. — (1.) As is a conjunction, used here as a relative, according to 
the Note preceding ; of the third person plural, masculine gender, agreeing 
with scholars, according to Rule V.; and in the nominative case to oppli/, 
according to Rule VI. 

Note XX. — The conjunction than seems to have the force 
of a preposition before the relative ivhom, in a sentence where 
a comparison is made ; as follows : 

"Which when Beelzebub per- " Alfred, than whom, Solomon ex- 
cel ved, than whom, (1) Satan cepted, a wiser king never 
(2) excepted, (3) none higher reigned, was one of the earliest 
sat." English kings." 
Remarks. — (1.) Whom is governed by the conjunction than, used as a pre- 
position, according to Note XX. — (2.) Apply Rui e XVII. — (3.) Participle 
agreeing with Satan, by Rule XIII. — It is somewhat remarkable that if, in 
the last two examples, the personal pronoun he were substituted for whom, 
it would be in the nominative case ; as, ^^ A wiser king never reigned than 
he;" that is, " than he was»" 

649. SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under Kule 
I.? IL? III.? IV.? v.? YL? VII.? VIII. ? IX.? X.? XL? XIL? 
XIII.? XIV.? XV.? XVL? XVIL? XVIIL? XIX.? XX.? XXL? 
XXIL? 

Will you construct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arising from 
fire? one, on losses by seaf one, on the fatal effects of lightning f one, on 
the character of our forefathers f one, on each of the seasons? one, on the 
effects of rain ? one, on the manner of making hay ? one, on the appearance 
of soldiers ivhen training? one, on the celebration of the Fourth of July? 
one, on the utility of fire? one, on the utility of wood? one, on the useful- 
ness of the cow ? one, on fruit ? 

When is the conjunction as used as a What does< English grammar teach? 288. 

relative pronoun? Note XIX. How many parts of speech are there in 

Will you parse as, in the phrase, "lie English? 299. 

received into his school as many scholars What does orthngrapJiy include ? 291. 

as applied" ? Note XTX. What does it teach us ? 291. 

Will yon parse the remaining exercises Wliat does etymology teach ? 293. 

under this Note ? What are proper nouns ? 302. 

When is than considered a preposition? What are common nouns? 301. 

Note XX. Give an example. In what manner mny proper names be 

What would be the effect of using the used as common names ? 303. 

personal pronoun instead of the relative? How may common names he used to 

Observation under Note XX. Give an ex- represent individuals ? 30i. 

ami)le. What is a collective noun ? 306. 

Will you now take the sentences to be What four things belong to nouns? 

parsed and M'ritten ? 308. 

How many articles are there? 351. Will What is gender? 312. Masculine gen- 

you name them ? 351. When do we use a/ der ? 314. Feminine gender? 315. Com- 

87,357. When an .^86. mon gender? 316. Neuter gender? 317. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 109 



LXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 

650. That is a relative^ 

When who or xohich may be substituted for it, and make sense; as, "The 
man that [who] arrived yesterday.*' 

651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, 

When it is joined with a noun to point it out; as, " That man is intelli- 
gent." 

652. That is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun ; as, 
*'He studies that he may learn.'' 

653. But is a preposition, 

When it has the sense of except; as, *'A11 but [except] John 
came." 

654. But is an adverb, 

When it has the sense of only ; as, " This is but [only] doing our 
dut}'." 

655. But is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor a preposition; as, "He 
called, but I refused to go." 

656. As is a relative. 

When it follows many, such, or same; as, "Let such as hear take 
heed." 

65 1. As is an adverb. 

When it is joined to an adverb or an adjective in-the sense of so ; as, " He 
does as well as he can." 

658. As is a conjunction. 

In all cases except when it is an adverb or a relative; as, "He did as I 
directed him." 

659. Either is a conjunction, 

W^hen it corresponds to or ; as, "' Either the one or the other." 

660. EiTHEK is a distributive pronoun. 

When it means "one of the two;'' as, "You can take either 
road." 

661. Both is a conjunction. 

When it is followed by and ; as, "We assisted him both for his sake and 
for our own." 

How may nouns, naturally neuter, be pronoun? 651. Give an example. When a 

converted into the masculine or the femi- conjunction? 652. Give an example, 

nine gender? 318. Vv hen is 6k< a preposition? 653. Give an 

What is the feminine corresponding to example. When an adverb ? 654. Give an 

bachelor f 319. How is the feminine here example. When a conjunction ? 655, Give 

formed ? ^" example. 

ix'-ii ' ^„ r, 11 4.1 r • • ^^ ^A When is a* a relative? 656. Give an ex- 

U ill vou spell the femmme correspond- „,,,^, ttt „^ „^.,„.i.9 p^-- m,,^ 

the femmine here formed ? 'r^v^ ''ml ^ conjunction? 6o8. Give 

an eXtimpie. 

Will vou spell the feminine corre- When is eiY7?er a conjunction? 659. Give 

spondmg to baron? poet^ priest r Jew? an example. When a distributive pro- 

votaryf tutor ^ hero? dukef instructor? noun ? 660. Give an example. 

^^^- When is both ix conjunction? 661. Give 

LXIV. When is thai a relative? 650. an example. When an adjective pronoun? 

Give an example. When a demonstrative 662. Give an example. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

662. Both is £in adjective pronoun, 

When it means "the two;'' as, "Both men are guilty/* 

663. Yet is a conjunction, 

AVhen it follows though; as "Though he reproves me, yet I esteem 
him,'* In all other cases, it is an adverb ; as, '* That event has yet to 
come." 

664. For is a conjunction, 

When it means the same as because; as, "He trusted him, for he knew 
that he would not deceive him." 

665. For is 2b preposition. 

In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, "He works for 
me." 

666. What is a compound relative. 

When it stands for " that which ;" as, " I will take what [that which] you 
send me." 

661. What is an interrogative relative pronoun, 

When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want ?" 

668. What is an adjective pronoun. 

When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !" 

669. What is a compound adjective pronoun. 

When it is joined with nouns and has the sense of two or more words; 
as, '' In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The manner 
in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 

610. What is an interjection. 

When used to express wonder; as, "What! take my money?" 

611. Then is a conjunction, 

When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, then 
I must obey." 

612. Then is an adverb, 

When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?" 

613. Much is a noun. 

When it stands for quantity; as, "Where much is given, much will be 
required." 

614. Much is an adjective. 

When it is joined to nouns; as, "Much labor fatigues us." 

615. Much is an adverb, 

When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does; as, 
" Thou art much mightier than I." 

^1Q. More is a noun, 

When it implies quantity ; as, '* The more we have, the more we 
want." 

When is yet a conjunction? 663. Give example. When au interjection? 670. Give 

an example. When an adverb? 663. an example. 

Give an example. ^ ,.,,,, ^. When is </im a conjunction ? 671. Give 

A\ ben ]s /or a conjunction? 664 Give ^^^ example. When an adverb? 672. 

an example. When a preposition ? 6Co. qj^.^ ^^jj example. 
Give an example 

When is ichcit a compound relative? When is mwc/^ a noun? 673. Give an ex- 

666. Give an example. When an inter- ^m^^^- When an adjective ? 674. Give an 

rogative relative pronoun? 667. Give an ^^x-imple. When an adverb? 675. Give an 

example. When an adjective pronoun? example. 

668. Give an example. Wlien a com- When is more a noun? 676. Give an 

pound adjective pronoun? 669. Give an example. 



EXERCISES. 



Ill 



677. More and most are adjectives, 

When they qualify a noun ; as, '^ The more joy I have, the more sorrow I 
expect ;" '■ Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of happiness." 

678. More and most are adverbs, 

When used in comparison ; as, ^' This boy is more obedient than that. " 
*• The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 

679. PKOMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



1. 



•^ They perfume their garments." 
' A perfume is a sweet odor." 
' They rise early in the morning." 
' A rise sometimes signifies the be- 
ginning." 
'Rufas speaks the language of 

truth." 
' James performed his part well." 
' A well is a fountain of water." ^ 
' A well man is one who enjoys his 

health." 
^ We frequently walk in the gar- 
den." 
' The Jews fast often." 
' He walks very fast." 
• The refuse signifies the worthless 

remains." 
' Desert not a friend." 
'Joseph's brethren came and 

bowed down before him." 
' William went after his slate." 



'His elder brethren came before 
Benjamin did." 

' John left after William came." 

' Evil communications corrupt 
good manners." 

■'Corrupt conversation is very 
foolish." 

' A walk in the fields in the sum- 
mer season is delightful." 

'A true fast is abstaining from 
iniquity." 

' Sin is a moral evil, and the cause 
of natural evils." 

' Protest not rashly, lest thou have 
to repent of it." 

' A protest is a solemn declaration 
against a thing." 

' Do nothing rashly, lest thou pre- 
cipitate thyself into inextricable 
difficulty.'' 

' Hasty promises are seldom kept." 



"The man that I saw, was exe- 
cuted." 

"That man that you met yesterday 
in the street, was taken and 
sent to Boston, that he might 
have an impartial trial." 

"We assisted him both for your 
sake and our own." 



" Did you hear the report of the 

cannon then ?" 
" Where much is given, much will 

be required." 
" Future time is yet to come." 
"He trusted him, for he knew 

that he would not deceive 

him." 



"When are more and most adjectives ? 077. 
Give examples of each. When adverbs? 
678. Give examples of each. 

What is number f 5. What does the sin- 
G;ular number denote ? 8. What the plural ? 
10. 

Wliat nouns have the sin2:ulaf form 
only? 324. What the plural ? 325. What 
are the same in both numbers? 32r). 

How is the plural number of nouns gen- 
erally formed ? 327. 

When nouns end in ch, sih, etc.. how do 
they form the plural ? 328. 

How do nouns ending in f or fe form 
the plural ? 

How is the plural formed, whee the sin- 
gular ends in r/, with no other vowel in the 
same syllable? 330. 

What is case? 383. The nominative 



case? 335. Possessive case? 337. How 
formed ? 338. How formed when the sin- 
gular ends in S5 P 341. 

What does the objective case express? 
343. 

Will you decline man? book? chair? 345. 

Will you parse the promiscuous exer- 
cises ? 

What is an adjective ? 363. What does 
the positive degree express ? 365. Compar- 
ative? 366. Superlative? 367. How is 
the comparative formed in monosyllables? 
369. How in words of more syllables than 
one ? 370. 

How do you compare the following ad- 
jectives? — good? bad? ivise? little? 
small ? virtuous ? many ? old ? 115. 

When does an adjective become a noun 
in parsing ? 378. 



112 



ENGLISH GSAMMAR. 



" Both tlie men are guilty." 

'^ Although he reproves me, yet I 

esteem him," 
"All but John came." 
" This is but doing our duty." 
"He called me, but I refused to 
. go," 

" Let such as hear take heed." 
" He did as I directed him." 
" You may take either the one or 

the other." 
" Either road will conduct you to 

the right place." 
"If he has commanded it, then I 

must obey." 

" Susan is determined to learn." 

" By framing excuses he prolonged 
his stay." 

"The man who is faithfully at- 
tached to religion may be relied 
on with confidence." 

" James, do visit me," 



3. 



" He works for me." 
"He refused what was sent him." 
" What strange things he saw !" 
" In what manner he succeeded is 

unknown to me." 
" What ! will you take my life ?" 
" The more we have, the more v*^e 

want." 
" The more joy I have, the more 

sorrow I expect." 
" The most dutiful children are the 

happiest children." 
" Much labor fatigues me." 
" Thou art much mightier than I 

am." 

" Virtue and vice are opposites." 
"When John's father asked him 
that question, he heard him, 
but refused to answer him." 
"The wall is sixty feet high." 
" To meet our friends after a long 
absence affords us much joy." 



LXV. CONTRACTIONS. 



680. Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had. 

" They ' ve forsaken him." " I ' ve satisfied myself." 



"They'd determined to let him 



" I 'd gone when you came." 

" They 'd just returned from town." 

681. Of Will and Would. 

" I '11 finish my work first." " He is still determined that he'll 



" They 'd sing songs till midnight, 
if they were urged." 



not forbear." 
"He'll at last mind me." 



Will you name a few adjectives which 
have in themselves a superlative signifi- 
cation? 374. 

Wliat is a pronoun? 381. A personal 
pronoun? 382. Why called personal? 
382. 

How many persons have pronouns in 
each number? 383. How many numbers 
have pronouns ? 384. 

To which of the pronouns is gender ap- 
plied ? 382. 

How many cases have pronouns ? 384, 

Will you decline If thou? kef she? it? 
127. 

What kind of pronoun is myself? 386. 
How formed ? 386. 

What is a relative pronoun ? 409. Why 
called relative ? 408. 

What is said of the relative what? 429, 

How ought who to be applied ? 412. 



How which? 413. How may that be used ? 
415. 

When are pronouns called interrogative ? 
431. 

What are adjective pronouns ? 390. How 
mnnv kinds of adjective pronouns are 
there? 391. 

Which are the demonstrative ? 398. 
Why so called? 398. The distributive? 
393. Why so called? 393, The indefinite? 
402. Why so called ? 401. 

To what do this and thai refer ? 400. 

Will you decline ont? 404. other? 
403, 

What is the rule by which pronouns 
agree with their antecedents? V. 

Whick words in sentences are antece- 
dents? 420. 

What are subsequents? 431. 

Will you parse the exercises marked 2? 



CONTKACTIONS. 113 

682. Of Am and Is. 

" That man 's rich." ^"Tis strange that she will not 

*' 'T is true she 's dead." regard the kind assistance of 

"I'm sorry that you have misspent her friend." 

your time." 

683. Of Cannot and Will not. 

" He can't endure such afflictions." " He won't disobey me." 
"You can't be absent at such "You won't mistake the direc- 
times." tion." 

684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Interrogative 

Sentence. 
" Who will assist me ?" " John" " What will make me respectable 

[will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue." 

" What sent our forefathers to this " Who taught him grammar ?" 

country ?" " The love of lib- " Mr. Williams." 

erty." 

685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxilia^^y. 

^^ Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same man- 
[go]. ner in which I would you." 

" Susan shall walk, but John shall " I will do it as soon as I can." 

not." " The work is not completed, I 

" I have recited ; have you ?" soon will be." 

686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As. 

" Thomas is a better scholar than '^ Johnson is richer than James." 

William" [is]. "Susan is not so beautiful as 

" He was more beloved than Cyn- Mary." 

thia, but not so much ad- " She is more playful than her 
mired." brother." 

687. Omissions of the Verb To be. 

" Sweet the pleasure, rich the trea- " Delightful task, to rear the tender 

sure." thought, 

" A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to 

" Sweet the music of birds." shoot." 
" Dear the school-boy's sport." 



What is a verb ? 438. tive ? 472. The subjunctive ? 456. The in- 

What is an active verb ? 439. finitive ? 479, 

When is an active verb transitive ? 440. What are participles? 498. How may the 

Wiien intransitive ? 441. participles ending in ing he distinguished 

What is a passive verb? 444. How from other words of like termination? 

formed? 510. 500. 

How may a transitive verb be known ? How many, and which, are the partici- 

154. ples?.j: What does the present express? 

How an intransitive ? 154, 500. Perfect? 502. Compound perfect? 

What is a neuter verb ? 450. 504. 

Will you next take the exercises marked LXV. Will you next parse the contrac- 

3? tions? 

What belong to verbs?* What is tense? 494. What is the pres- 

How many numbers have they ? How ent used for ? 482. The perfect ? Imper- 

many persons?! feet? 488. Pluperfect? 491. First fu- 

Whatismood? 451. How many moods ture ? 492. Second future ? 493. 

are there ? 481. Will you name them ? Under what circumstances do we use the 

What is the indicative mood used for ? present tense to denote the relative time 

452. The potential? 453. The impera- of a fut ure action ? 484. 

* Mood, tense, number, and person, f Three. + Three— prewent, perfect, compound perfect. 

10^* • H 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

688, Omissions of May, Might, Could, Would, and Should. 

" Live long and be happy/^ " He might not weep, nor laugh, 

" Who will entreat the Lord that nor sing." 

he spare our lives ?" ^' Should I forgive you, and allow 

" I could not think, nor speak, nor you to depart, you would not 

hear.'' reform.'' 

689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb in the Subjunctive 

Mood, 
^' If he will repent and reform, I " Had I improved my time as I 

will assist him." ^ ought to have done, I should 

" Unless good order be restored, have been well qualified for 

and the former officers be re- business." 

elected, there will be an end to " Were there no alternative, I 

the administration of justice." would not do that." 

690. Omissions q/FoR after Verbs implying the idea of serving, 

" Make me a pen." " Bring me some water." 

" Order me a carriage." " Purchase him a knife." 

691. Omiss'ions of the Interjection, 

Sweet child ! lovely child ! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of 
parents are no more." all mankind." 

►sweet blossom! precious to my "My beloved Uh-ica! hast thou, 
heart." too, forgotten me ?" 

692. Omissions of the Eelative, 

" Several men are there come " I trust that he I desire to see so 
from Europe." much, will speedily return." 



LXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 

693. The Nominative Case placed after the Verb, 

"Smack went the whip, round guished for his learning and 

went the wheels ; politeness." 

Were ever folks so glad ?" " And in soft ringlets waved her 

" There goes a man alike distin- golden hair." 

In what sort of descriptiocs do we use Will you now parse the omissions ? 68i, 

tlie present for the past tense? 486. etc. 

What is the conjugation of a verb ? 531. How is the passive verb formed ? 510. 

What is the conjugation of an active Will you conjugate love in the indicative 

verb styled? 532. A passive verb ? 532. present, passive? and the verb ?o 5e in the 

How many tenses has the indicative? imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? i'irst 

525. Potential? 627. Subjunctive? 526. future? Second future ? Present poteu- 

Imperative? 529. Infinitive? 528. tial ? Imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? 

What is the sign of the present indica- Present subjunctive, common form ? Im- 

tive? 519. The imperfect? 520. Per- perfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? i'irstfu- 

fect? 521. Pluperfect? 522. First fu- ture ? Second future ? 

ture? 523. Second future? 524. The In what voice, mood, tense, number, and 

potential mood? 515. Infinitive? 517. person is " I love*' ? " W^e love" ? "They 

Subjunctive? 516. How many persons are loved" ? " You are" ? " I did learn" ? 

has the imperative? 518. How many "John was ins<:ructed"? "He was"? 

tenses? 529. How many forms has the "They have returned"? "Have they 

subjunctive mood? 461, In what do they gone?" "They have been"? "T had 

difi'er ? 461. had" ? " They had been distinguished*' ? 



SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 115 

694. The Objective Case before the K 

" Tyrants no more their savage na- " Me glory summons to the martial 

ture kept, scene." 

And foes to virtue wondered how '' The rolls of fame I will not now 

they wept." explore." 

695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Eule VIII. ? One, Rule 
IX.? X.? XL? XII.? XIII. ? XIV.? Will you compose a sentence 
on the usefulness of the dog? One, on the clouds? One, on night f One, 
on wind f One, on snow? One, on hall? One, on ice? One, on skating? 
One, on fiiihing? One, on courage? One, on cowardice? One, on filial 
duty ? One, on indolence ? One, on schools ? 

696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 

" Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown." 

Transposed, 
" A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head upon 
the lap of earth." 

" When, young, life's journey I began. 

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes; 
I saw along tlie extended plain, 
Joy after joy successive rise : 
But soon I found 't was all a dream, 

And learned the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purposed aim, 
And thousands daily are undone." 

Transposed. 

"I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect 
cliarmed my eyes ; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- 
tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to shun 
the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and thousands 
are daily undone." 

" Needful austerities our wills restrain, 
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." 

Transposed, 

" Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the tender 
plant from harm." 

" Tliou hadst been"? "You shall be Will you give the synopsis of iZmre in the 

taught"? '"Shall I be punished?" "He active voice, with the participles? Of the 

shall have been"? same in the passive? Of do in the active ? 

LXVI. Will you parse the inverted sen- In the passive? 

tences? 693, etc. ^hen is a verb called regular? 533. 

In what voice, mood, tense, number, and ^hen irre2;ular ' 534. 

person is "Love thou"? "I may go"? wni vou reneat the nre^^ent and imDer- 

*• You may be regarded"? "You might be . ,^1^ ^^" lepeat the pie^ent and impei- 

rejoiced" ? " Shi may have been refused" ? ^'^\ tenses also the perfect participle, of 

MVe should have been"? "If I have"? "^ ' '"'- '^'^''' ^'^' "^''^ ' '''^'- ''"'"''• 

"If thou have"? "If thou hast"? "To ^i^^ yo^ ^^^t take the sentences to be 

have" ? " To have been" ? written ? 

Will you give the synopsis of learn^ What are auxiliary verbs? 511. 

through all the moods, tenses, etc., in the How many and which are they ? 512. 

first person, including the participle? What are defective verbs ? 579. 

Learn, in like manner, in the passive ? The What is an adverb ? 588. Why so called ? 

verb to he in the same manner? 228. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J fond breast the parting soul relies, 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 
E'en from the tomb the voice of Nature cries, 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." 

Transposed. 
" The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye requires 
some pious drops ; the voice of Nature cries, even from the tomb ; and 
their wonted fires live even in our ashes." 

" From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high, 
And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, 
My Muse ! descend ; indulge my fond desire ; 
With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, 
And smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; 
A partial world will listen to my lays, 
While Anna reigns, and sets a female name 
Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 

Transposed, 

" my Muse ! descend thou from lofty them.es, and from thoughts 
that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ; indulge 
thou my fond desire ; and do thou inspire my melting soul with softer 
thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; a partial world 
will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female name un- 
rivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 

In what manner are adverbs compared ? What is the rule for the agreement of 

236,234. Ronns? XV. Articles? II., III. Adjec- 

Vv hat are the phrases which do the oflQce tives? IV. Pronouns? V. Verbs? VII. 

of adverbs called? 589. Participles? XIII. Agreement of a verb 

Will you name a few? 589, plural with two nouns singular? XVIII. 

Wliat is a preposition ? 595. Adjective pronouus and numerals ? Note 

Will you repeat the list of prepositions? 1. 

^'^"^ • , , „ ^ o /-. . What is the rule by which a verb agrees 

What IS a conjunction? 602. Conjunc- ^^jj^^ ^ ^^^^^ of multitude, or collective 

tion copulative? 265. Why so called ? 264. ^^^^^ ? ^^^e XVI. Rule for the objective 

ConjunctH)n disjunctive? 274. Why so case after a transitive verb? VIII. 

""^Wil/ you repeat the list of copulative ^^^^^'^^ ^^ ^he rule for the objective case 
conjunctions? 266. Of disjunctive con- after a preposition .^ X. After a participle? 

junctions ? 275. X^^- . ^^'^^ ^-'^^^'^ '''i!"'^"^! }^', Y}\'^% 

What is an interjection? 607. Why so spectiug the interjections O.' o/i.' a/i .' etc.? 

called? 283. Mention a few. 285. JNote X. 

What is syntax? 296. W^hat is a sen- Will you parse the sentences marked 

tence? 252. A simple sentence? 258. transposed? 



GENERAL OBSERYATIONS. 



SYNTAX. 

That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and sound 
of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and of syl- 
lables into words, is called Orthography. 

That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their vari- 
ous changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. 

That part which treats of the union and right order of words in 
the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, 
Universal and Particular, Universal Grammar explains the 
principles which are common to all languages. Particular 
Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi- 
fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the 
established practice of the best vvriters and speakers by whom it 
is used. 

Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the expres- 
sion of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain articulate 
sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations. 
An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the 
organs of speech. 

Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the 
elements of the language. 

The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, 
are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first prin- 
ciple, or least part, of a word. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The 
vowels are a, e, z, o, w, and sometimes w and y, TFand y are con- 
sonants when they precede a vowel in the same syllable ; but in 
every other situation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without 
thQ aid of a vowel; as, b, d,f, I. All letters except the vowels are 
consonants. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel. 
They are 6, p^ c?, t, k, and c and g hard. 

(117) 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They 
are/, <f, m, n^ r, v^ s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, 
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it 
were, into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single 
impulse of the voice ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like 
manner ; as, eau in beaUj iew in view, 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; 
as, oi in voice^ ou in ounce. 

In an improper diphthong but one of the vowels is sounded ; as, 
ea in eagle, oa in boat 

A Syllable is one or more letters uttered by a single impulse 
of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word ; as, a, an, 
ant. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; a word of two 
syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; a 
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

Words are articulate sounds, or their written representatives, 
used by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivatire. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler 
word in the language ; as, man, good. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler 
word; as, manful, goodiiess. 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, pro- 
duce a syllable; syllables, properly combined, produce a word; 
words, duly combined, produce a sentence ; and sentences, properly 
combined, produce an oratio7i, or discourse. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite^ verb ; 
as, " Life is short.'' 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together; as, '' Life is short, and art is long." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the 
members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound 
members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional connection; as in 
the following example : " The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's 
crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." This sen- 
tence consists of two compound members, each of which is subdivided into 
two simple members, which are properly called clauses. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, forming 
part of a sentence, but not making complete sense. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the 
attribute, and the object. 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the infiai- 
tiv« mood have no respect to number and person. 



SYNTAX. 119 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the 
thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is tlie thing 
affected by such action. 

The nominative case denotes the subject, and usually goes be- 
fore the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting the 
object follows the verb; as, " A wise man governs his passions." 
Here a wise mmi is the subject ; governs^ the attribute, or thing 
affirmed; and his passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Govern- 
ment. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another 
in gender, number, case, or person. Government is that power 
which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, 
tense, case, etc. 

What is Orthography? Etymology? Syntax? How many kinds of 
grammar are there ? What are they? What is universal grammar? Par- 
ticular grammar? What is language? What is an articulate sound? What 
are letters? What are the letters of the English language called? What 
does each constitute ? How are letters divided ? What is a vowel ? Which 
are the vowels ? How many do they make ? When are lo and y consonants ? 
When vowels ? What is a consonant? Give an example. Which letters are 
consonants? How are the consonants divided? What is a mute? Which 
are they? What is a semi-vowel? Which are they? Which of the semi- 
vowels are called liquids, and why ? What is a diphthong ? Give an exam- 
ple. What is a triphthong ? -Give an example. What is a proper diphthong ? 
Give an example. What is an improper diphthong? Give an example. 
What is a syllable ? monosyllable? dissyllable? trisyllable? polysyllable? 
What are words ? Of how many sorts are they ? What is a primitive word ? 
Give an example. What is a derivative word ? Give an example. What 
does an elementary sound produce? What do syllables produce? Words? 
Sentences ? What is a sentence ? How are sentences divided ? What is a 
simple sentence? Compound sentence? Give an example of each. How 
are the members of sentences divided ? Give an example. What is a phrase ? 
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? What is the subject ? the 
attribute? the object? AVhat does the nominative case denote? and where 
is it usually placed in a sentence? Give an example. Of how many parts 
does Syntax consist? What are they ? What is concord? Government? 

The right construction of sentences may perhaps be best 
learned by correcting examples of wrong construction. 
Exercises in false syntax for the pupil^ assisted by rules 
and notes to parse and correct, will therefore now be given. 

The following contain all the notes and observations in 
Murray's large Grammar, together with all his exercises in 
false syntax. 

RULE VII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE I. 

A verb must agree loith its nominative case in number and 

per son, 

^ The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule: ''What 
signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad?" **what signiftj" 



120 



ENGLISH GJIAMMAR. 



"There's two or three of us, who have seen the work;" "there are." ""We 
may suppose there was more impostors than one;" "there were more." ^* I 
have considered what have been said on both sides in this controversy ;" 
" what has been said." " If thou wouJd be healthy, live temperately ;" " if 
thou ivouldH." ^^ Thou sees how little has been done;" "thou Seesi." 
" Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do some- 
thing ;" '' canst not, mayst, and shouldHt." " Full many a flower are born to 
blush unseen ;" " ?s born." " A conformity of inclinations and qualities pre- 
pare us for friendship ;" '^prepares us." "A variety of blessings have been 
conferred upon us;" " Aas been." " In piety and virtue consist the happi- 
ness of man ;" " consists,^' " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selec- 
tion of rules and maxims;" '^ is subjoined." 

" If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in 
this example ? In what particular, wrong ? Why ? What is the Rule for 
it? How, then, would you correct the example? — " There was more equiv- 
ocators." Which word is wrong here ? What correction should be made ? 
Why? 

^^^ The pujnl is first to answer the questions on each Hide or Note, then to 
correct and 2-><^'"se the subsequent exercises. It is suggested to the teacJier, that 
the pupils should direct their attention first to the Rules and the exercises under 
the7n, excliLsivtly^ omitting the Notes, etc., for a review, when all may he taken 
in course. 



'Disappointment sinks the heart 
of man; but the renewal of 
hope give consolation.'' 

'The smiles that (1) encourage 
severity of judgment hides mal- 
ice and insincerity." 

'He dare not act (2) contrary (3) 
to his instructions." 

'Fifty pounds of wheat contains 
forty pounds of flour." 

'The mechanism of clocks and 
watches ivere totally unknown 
(4) a few centuries ago." (5) 

'The number of inhabitants in 
Great Britain and Ireland do 
not exceed thirty-five millions." 

'Nothing (6) but vain and foolish 
pursuits (7) delight some per- 
sons." 

'A variety of pleasing objects 
charm the eye." 

'So (8) much (9) both (10) of 
ability and merit (11) are sel- 
dom (12) found." 

'* In the conduct of Parmenio a 
mixture of wisdom and folly 
(11) were very (8) conspicu- 
ous." 

''He is an author (13) of more 



credit than Plutarch, (14) or 
any other (15) that (11) writ 
lives too (12) hastily." 

"The inquisitive (16) and curious 
(11) is generally talkative." 
(17) 

" Great pains has been taken to 
reconcile the parties." 

"The sincere (10) is always es- 
teemed." 

"Has the goods been sold to ad- 
vantage ? and did thou embrace 
the proper season ?" 

"There is many occasions (6) in 
life, in which silence and sim- 
plicity (11) is true Avisdom." 

"The generous (16) never re- 
counts minutely the actions 
they have done ; nor the pru- 
dent (7) those (15) they will 
do." 

"He need not proceed (2) in such 
haste." 

"The business that (1) related to 
ecclesiastical meetings, mat- 
ters (11) and persons (11) 
w^ere to be ordered accord- 
ing (18) to the king's direc- 
tion." 



(1.) See 650. (2.) Apply Rule XTI. See 480. (3 ) Adjective. (4.) Rule 

XIII. (5.) A few centuries ago — an arlverbial phrase, 689 ; or apply Note XVIII., 

648, to centuries, and Rule IX. to ago. (6.) Rule VI. (7.) Rule XI. (8.) 239. 

(9.) 673. (10) 661. (11.) Rule XI. ri2.) Adverb. (13.) Rule XT. 613, 

(14.) ''Plutarch is." (15.) Note I. 405, and Rule XI. (16.) 378. (17.) Rule 

IV. (18.) 247. 



SY:SmTAX. 121 

"In him were happily blended \yhen our abundance makes us 

true dignity with softness of wish (12) for more." 

manners.'^ "Thou shall love thy neighbor 

"The support of so (1) many (2) as (13) sincerely as (14j thou 

of his relations, were a heavy loves thyselt." 

tax (3) upon his indusirv; " Has thou no better reason for cen- 

but thou knows he paid* it suring (15) thy friend and com- 

cheerfuUv." panion?" (16) 

"What (4) avails the best senti- "Thou who art the Author (17) 

ments, (5) if persons do not and Bestower (16) of life, can 

live suitablv to them r doub less restore it also ; but 

„ , ^ ,^x ; -, 1 ,1 whether thou will please to re- 

" ^ot one (6 of them whom thou ^^^^^ -^ ^^, ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^. 

sees clothed ( / ) m purple, are knows " 

completely happy." u q ^^^^^ ^^. ^.^i^^ (^g^ inspire, 

"And the fame of this person, ^yi^^ touched (19) Isaiah's hal- 

and of his wonderful actions, lo^yed lips with fire." 

were diffused (8) throughout "Accept (20j these grateful tears ; 

the country." for thee thev flow ; 

"The variety of the productions For thee, that ever felt (21) an- 

of genius, like (9) that (10) others woe." 

of the operations of nature, " Just to thy word, in every thought 

are without limit." sincere ; 

"In vain (11) our flocks and fields "Who knew (22) no wish but Y>^hat 

increase our store, the Avorld might hear." 

1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nomi- 
native case to the verb ; as, ^' To see the sun is pleasant :" " To be good is to 
be happy;" "A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commenda- 
ble;" '' That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, 
and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe:" "To be temperate 
in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the 
mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

"To see the sun are pleasant." Which word is wrong in this example? In 
what particular, wrong? What is pleasant f What, then, is the nominative 
case to t« f Is there one thing, or more than one, here spoken of. as being 
pleasant? Why, then, should we use is in preference to are F What is the 
Rule for is ? (23) Rule for " To see,'' or " To see the sun" f (24) 

^^** WJien examples are re/erred to ivithout being quoted, the teacher may 
read tJiem to the pujjil. 

"To be temperate in eating," etc. How many things are here spoken of 
as being the best preservatives ? Should we, then, use the singular or the 
plural verb? Rule for it? (25) 

1. 

"' To do unto all men, as we would " From a fear of the world's censure, 
that they, in similar circum- to be ashamed (24) of the prac- 

stances, should do unto us, con- tice of precepts, which the heart 

sfituie the great principle of approves and embraces, raark a 

virtue." feeble and imperfect character." 

(1.) 239. (2.) 378. (3.) Rule XY. 613. (4.) Rule Till. (5 ) Rule YI. 

(6.) Note I. 405, and Rule YI. (7.) Rule XIII. iS.) 510. (9.) Rule lY. 

(10.) " that variety''— "S ate I. 405, and Rule X. See Note XYII. 647. (11.) Ad- 

Terbial phrase. (12.) Rule XII. 555. See 4S0. (13.) Adverb. (14.) Con- 

junctiou. (15.) Parti'iplal noun. (16.^ Rule XI. (17.) Rule XY. 613. 

(18.) Rule YIII. (10.) "Who tnuehfidst or didst tnvchr (20.) "Accept 

thou''' — imp. mood. (21.) '' didst feeV (22,) '■'■Who l:newe>^t or didst l-nnw'''' 

(23.) Rule YII. (24.) Note XIII. 626, or. Note 1, this page. (25.) Rule XYIIL 

11 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



"The erroneous opinions which 
we form concerning (1) hap- 
piness and misery gives rise 
to all the mistaken (2) and 
dangerous passions that em- 
broils our life.'^ 

" To live soberly, righteously, and 
piously, are required of all 
men." 

"That (3) it is our duty to pro- 
mote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, to be just (4) and 
kind to our fellow-creatures, 
and to be pious and faithful to 
Him that made us, admit not 
of any doubt in a rational and 
well (5) informed mind." 

"To be of a pure and humble 
mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate 
piety towards God, is the sure 
means (6) of becoming peace- 
ful and happy." 

" It is an important truth, that re- 
ligion, vital religion, the re- 
ligion of the heart, are the most 



powerful auxiliaries of reason, 
in waging war with the pas- 
sions, and promoting that sweet 
composure which constitute 
the peace of God." 

" The possession of our senses 
entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, of 
friends and companions, are 
often overlooked ; though it 
would be the ultimate wish (6) 
of many, who, as far as we can 
judge, deserves it as much as 
ourselves." 

" All (7) that make a figure on the 
great theatre of the world, the 
employments of the busy, the 
enterprises of the ambitious, 
and the exploits of the warlike ; 
the virtues which forms the 
happiness, and the crimes 
which occasions the misery of 
mankind ; originates in that 
silent and secret recess of 
thought, which are hidden 
from every human eye." 



2. Every verb, unless it is in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought to 
have a nominative case, either expressed or implied; as, ** Awake, arise;'' 
that is, ^^ Awake ye; arise ye.^' 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb 
without its nominative case. *' As it hath pleased him of his goodness to 
give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," etc. 
The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot be properly 
supplied by the preceding word, hi7n, which is in the objective case. It ought 
to be '' and as he hath preserved you ;" or rather, ^' and to preserve you." " If 
the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had continued ;" ^' and 
tvhich lasted," etc. " These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted 
credit, and are the same that were practised," etc.; '^ and they are the same." 
*' A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to 
manage the business;" ^' and loho had," etc. ^' A cloud gathering in the 
north ; which we have helped to raise, and may quickly break in a storm 
upon our heads ;" ^' and which may quickly." 

"As it hath pleased," etc. What correction should be made in this ex- 
ample ? Why ? Recite the Note. 

2. 
" If the privilege to which he has 



an undoubted right, and he 
has long enjoyed, should now 
be wrested from him, (8) would 
be flagrant injustice." 
"These curiosities we have im- 
ported from China, and are 



similar to those which were 

some time ago brought from 

Africa." 
"Will martial flames forever fire 

thy mind. 
And never, never (9) be to heaven 

resigned ?" 



(1.) Preposition. (2.) Rule XIII. (3.) Conjimction. (4.) "just persons.' 

Rule IV. (5.) Adverb. (6.) Rule XV. (7.) Note I. 405, Rule VL 

(8.) " it would.'''' (9.) '"''And wilt ihou never beP' 



SYNTAX. 123 

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address 
is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or implied; 
as, " Who wrote this book ?'^ *• James;" that is, ''James wrote it." "To 
whom thus Adam," that is, ''spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without 
anv verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate 
the usefulness of the preceding observations. 

" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which had been offered up to him." The 
pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb observed ; and which rule 
is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This form 
of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this 
rule had been observed," etc. " Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, 
and such from which others as well as himself might receive profit and delight, 
yet they are all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nominative man 
stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either expressed or implied. It 
should be, "'Though man has great variety," etc. 

"Which rule, if it," etc. What is the nominative case to observed f Has 
the noun rule any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case? 
Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper ? What correction 
should be made? Why? Kecite the Note. 

3. 

" (1) Two substantives, it'Aen they "Virtue, however it may be 
come together, and do not neglected for a time, men are 
signify the same thing, the so constituted as ultimately to 
former (2) must be in the acknowledge and respect gen- 
genitive case." uine merit.'' 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be under- 
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them; but 
some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as 
also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, " His meat was locusts and 
wild honey;" *' A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints 
put upon it ;" " The wages of sin is death." 

" The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What is the 
nominative case to isf Is this nominative, in the first example, before or 
after is ? What is the rule for wages f (3) Recite the Note. What do you 
mean by the subject of the affirmation ? (4) 

4. 

" The crown of virtue is peace and " His chief occupation and enjoy- 

honor." ment were controversy." 

5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put 
before a participle, independently of the rest of the sentence, it is called the 
case absolute; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" "That having been 
discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it." 

As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the nom- 
inative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. " Sol- 
omon was of this mind; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true 
proverbs as any body has done since; hira only excepted, who was a much 
greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." 

What is the rule for the case absolute? (5) " Him only excepted." Which 
word is wrong in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correc- 
tion should be made ? 

(1.) "Whe.v two substantive a come lonpilip.r." (2.) "fhp. firxf nfthem." 

(3.) Eule XV. 613. (4.) The nominative case. . (5.) Rule XVII^ 623. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

5. 
-"Him destroyed, All this (2) will soon follow.'^ 



Or won to what (1) may work "Whose gray top 

his utter loss, Shall tremble, him descending." 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb,* but sometimes it 
is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense; and between the auxiliary and 
the verb or the participle, if a compound tense; as, 

1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed; as, 
^' Confidest thou in me V ^' Read thou !" " Mayst thou be happy I" " Long 
live the king V 

2d. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, ** Were it 
not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d. When a verb transitive is used ; as, '• On a sudden appeared the 
king.- 

4th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, ihev, thence^ 
hence, thus, etc. ; as, '^ Here am I ;" " There was he slain ;" " Then cometh 
the end ;" "Thence ariseth his grief;" " Hence proceeds his anger;" " Thus 
was the affair settled." 

5th. When a sentence depends on neither or no?-, so as to be coupled with 
another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest 
ye die." 

Some grammarians assert that the phrases as follows, as appears, form what 
are called impersonal verbs, and should, therefore, be confined to the singu- 
lar number ; as, " The arguments advanced were nearly as folloivs ;" ^' The 
positions were as appears incontrovertible;" that is, "as it follows," "as it 
appears." If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and, instead 
of as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal, but properly 
agrees with its nominative, in the plural number ; as, " The arguments 
advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The positions were such as apjpear 
incontrovertible."'^- 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as, how- 
ever and whenever used in English, means the same as it, or that, or which," 
and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, 
should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the form of expres- 
sion. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be conveyed in the fol- 
lowing terms : — " The arguments advanced were nearly of the following 
nature;" "The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced;" 
"The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow;" "It appears 
that the positions were incontrovertible;" " That the positions were incontro- 
vertible is apparent;" " The positions were incontrovertible, is apparent;" 
*' The positions were apparently incontrovertible." 

Where is the nominative case usually placed ? Mention a few instances in 
which the nominative follows the verb. What do some grammarians say of 
the phrases as follows, as appears f What is Dr. Campbell's opinion concern- 
ing them ? 

(1.) " that which:' 437. (2.) Note I. 405. 

* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority of an emi- 
nent critic on languaire and composition. " When a verb is used impersonally," says 
Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, "it ought undoubtedly to be in the singu- 
hir number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or imderstood." For this reason, 
analogy and usage favor this mode of expression ; " The conditions of the agreement 
Avere as follows:' and not ^^ as follow :' A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted 
this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For the same reason, we ought 
to say, "I shall consider his censures so far only as concertis my friend's conduct," and 
not " so far as concern:'' 



SYNTAX. 125 



RULE XVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE II. 

Tico or more nouns or pronouns of the singular number 
connected by and, either expressed or understood^ must 
have verbs, nouns^ and pronouns agreeing icith them in 
the ijlural number. 

This rule is often violated; some instances of which are annexed. "And 
so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners with 
Simon :" "and so were also/' ''All joy. tranquillity, and peace, even for ever 
and ever, doth dwell:" ^^ dwell iov ever.'' '' By whose power all good and evil 
is distributed;" *' are distributed.'' " Their love, and their hatred, and their 
envy, is now perished :" "' are perished." " The thoughtless and intemperate 
enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and the forgetfulness of our 
being accountable creatures, obliterates every serious thought of the proper 
business of life, and effaces the sense of religion and of God;" it ought to be, 
*^ obliterate" and " efface." 

"All joy, tranquillity, etc., doth dwell." TVhich word is wrong in this ex- 
ample? Id what particular, wrong? What correction, then, should be made? 
Why ? Recite the Kule. 

" Idleness and ignorance is the " The planetary system, boundle>s 

parent of many vices.' ^ space, and the immense ocean, 

" Wisdom, YiTtue, happiness, dvjells atfects the mind with sensations 

with the golden mediocrity." of astonishment." 

"In unity consists the welfare and "Humility and love, whatever (3) 

security of every society." obscurities may involve religi- 

"Time and tide icaits for no ous tenets, constitutes the es- 

man." sence of true religion." 

" His politeness and good disposi- " Eeligion and virtue, our best sup- 

tion was, on failure of their port (4) and highest honor,* 

effect, entirely changed." confers on the mind principles 

** Patience and diligence, like (1) of noble independence." 

faith, (2) removes mountains." "What (5) signifies the counsel 

"Humility and knowledge, with and care of preceptors, when 

poor apparel, excels pride and youth think they have no (6) 

ignorance under costly attire." need of assistance ?" 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in sense, 
and sometimes even when they are very different, some auftiors have thought 
it allowable to put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns in the singular number; 
as, " Tranquillity and peace dwells there:" "'Ignorance and negligence has 
produced the effect ;" " The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But 
it is evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to consider two 
distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shades of difference : and if 
there be no difference, one of them mast be superfluous, and ought to be 
rejected. 

To support the above construction, it is said that the verb may be under- 
stood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the following exam- 
ple : '•'Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man 
without understanding." But besides' the confusion, and the latitude ©f 

(1.) Adverb. (2.) Rule X. See Note XYII. 647. (3.) Note I. 405. 

(4.) Rwle XV. (5.) Rule Till. (6.) 239. 

11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

application, which such a construction would introduce, it appears to be more 
proper and analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied to 
any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which 
grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms, in a 
separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and dis- 
junctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, consistent, and intelli- 
gible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that ^'two or more substantives, joined 
by a copulative, must always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, 
to be placed in the plural number." 

"Tranquillity and peace dwells there." What dwells? Is it not, then, a 
violation of Rule XVIII. to use dwells in the singular number? When do 
some writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns in the 
singular number? Is this usage grammatical? In what does the incorrect- 
ness consist? If there be no difference in the meaning of terms, are both 
necessary? What ought to be done with the superfluous one? How do some 
attempt to support the above construction ? How would they read, on this 
principle, the example beginning with, " Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, 
is easier," etc.? (1) .• In examples like the last, what conjunction can we sub- 
stitute in the place of and, which will better express the sense ? What does 
Dr. Blair say on this subject? 

1. ^ 

" Much, does human pride and self- " Pride and self-sufficiency stifles 

complacency require correc- sentiments of dependence on 

tion." our Creator; levity and at- 

" Luxurious living, and high pleas- tachment to worldly pleasures 

ures, begets a languor and satiety destroys the sense of gratitude 

that destroys all enjoyment.'' to him." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is diflBcult for learners to determine, 
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative 
case; and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the singular or the 
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied examples 
of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar with 
respect to sentences of a similar construction. " Prosperity, with humility, 
renders its possessor truly amiable." "The ship, with all her furniture, vms 
destroyed." "Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his mis- 
conduct." " The general, also, in conjunction with the oflicers, lias applied 
for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well 
as the people, loas blameworthy." "The king, with his life-guard, has just 
passed through the village." "In the mutual influence of body and soul, 
there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." " Virtue, 
honor, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure." ^'Pa- 
triotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand our sub- 
mission to just and lawful government." "Nothing delights me so much as 
the works of Nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the 
authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers; and we annex them for 
the reader's consideration: "A long course of time, with a variety of 
accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions." 
" The king, with the lords and commons, form an excellent frame of 
government." " The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the tri- 
angle." " The fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furni- 
ture of the room, and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It 
is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of expression do not 
appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction. The words, 
"A long course of time," "The king," "The side A," and "which," are 
the true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last example, the 
word all should be expunged. As the preposition loith governs the 
objective case in English, and, if translated into Latin, would govern 

(1.) " Sand is easier, and salt is easier, and a mass of iron i$ easier," etc. 



SYNTAX. 127 

the ahlative case, it is manifest that the clauses following with, in the pre- 
ceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nomiuative case. They cannot 
be at the same time in the objective and the nominative case. The follow- 
ing sentence appears to be unexceptionable, and may serve to explain the 
others: "The lords and commons are essential branches of the British con- 
stitution* the king, with them, f onus an excellent frame of government.*' 

'' The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." In this sen- 
tence, what is the nominative case to compo>>e f Should the verb, then, be 
singular or plural? "What difficulty is mentioned in the beginning of this 
Note ? 

2. 
** Good order in our affairs, not virtue is wanting, have a very 

mean savings, produce great limited influence, and are often 

profits."' despised." 

"The following treatise, together ^' That superficial scholar and critic, 
with those th^t accompany it, like some renowned critics of 

uere written many years ago, our own, have (2) furnished 

for my own private satisfac- most decisive proofs that they 

tion." (3) knew not the characters of 

" That great senator, in concert the Hebrew language." 

with several other eminent "The buildings of the institution 
-personSj ivere the pj'ojectors {i) have been enlarged; the ex- 

of the revolution." pense of which, added (4) to 

" The religion of these people, as the increased price of provi- 

well as their customs and sions, render it necessary to 

manners, wt^re strangely mis- advance the terms of admis- 

represented." sion." 

"Virtue, joined to knowledge and "One, added to nineteen, make 
wealth, confer great influence twenty." 

and respectability. But know- "What (5) black despair, what 
ledge, with wealth united, if horror, fills the mind !" 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a 
copulative conjunction, are of several persons, in making the plural pronouns 
agree with them in person, the second person takes precedence of the third, 
and the first takes precedence of both; as, ^" James, and thou, and I, are at- 
tached to ou)' country ,-" '*' Thou and he shared it between yon." 

"James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country." What is wrong 
in this example? In what particular, wrong? What correction should be 
made? Why? " Thou and he shared it between him.'' Will you correct 
this example ? Whv use you instead of him f Will you repeat the Xote ? 

3. 

" Thou, and the gardener, and the " My sister and I, as well as my 
huntsman, ^ must share the brother, are daily employed 

blame ofthis business amongst in their respective occupa- 

themJ' " tions." 



' Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would cer- 
tainly stand better thus: "The kine, the lords, and the commons, farm an excellent 
constitution." 

(1.) Kule XV. 613. (2.^ 632. Exceptioa 1. (3.) " he hiew:' 

(4.) Rule XIII. 557. (5.) 434. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XXIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE III. 

The covjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of 
the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb^ noun, or pro- 
noun is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, 
it must be in the singular number ; as, " Ignorance or 
negligence has caused this mistake ;" '' John, James, 
or Joseph, intends to accompany me ;" '' There is, in 
many minds, neither knowledge nor understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man may see a 
metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a description ]" 
*^ read I'i." "Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood;" *' teas 
yet/* " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry 
in them robbery or murder f " does not carry in it.'' " Death, or some worse 
misfortune, soon divide them ;" it ought to be " divides.'' 

''Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood." What is wrong in 
this example.? Why? Will you correct it? What is the Rule for this cor- 
rection ? 

" Man's happiness or misery are, in ^' When sickness, infirmity, or re- 

a great measure, put into^ his verse of fortune affect us, the 

own hands." sincerity of friendship is 

" Man is not such a machine as a proved." 

clock or a watch, which mov^ " Let (1) it be remembered (2) 

merely as they are moved." that (3) it is not the uttering 

" Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain 

body, nor any condition of words that constitute the wor- 

iife ; for they are, perhaps, to ship of the Almighty." 

be your own lot." • ^^ A tart reply, a proneness to re- 

" Speaking impatiently to ser- buke, or a captious and contra- 

vants, or anything that be- dictions spirit, are capable of 

trays inattention or ill-humor, imbittering (4) domestic life 

are certainly criminal." (5), and of setting friends at 

" There are many faults in spell- variance." 
ing, which neither analogy 
nor pronunciation justify." 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun' of different persons, 
are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree in person with the nearest 
nominative; as, ''I or thou art to blame ,''^ "Thou or \am in fault, ''^ "I, 
thou, or he, \s the author of it :*' " George or I am the person.'* But it 
would be better to say, " Eitlier I am to blame, or thou art," etc. 

'^ I or thou am to blame." How should this be altered ? What is the Rule 
for it? 

1. 

" Either (6) thon or I art greatly ^^ I or thou am the person (7) who 
mistaken in our judgment on must undertake the business 

the subject." proposed." 

<1.) Imperative mood, agreeiQg with thou or yon understood, by Rule VI. 

(2.) Infinitive, 4^0. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) Rule X. 

(5) Rule XIV. bm. (6.) 659. (7.) Eule XV 613. 



SYNTAX. 129 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and 
a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun or pronoun ; as, 
^' Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" '^ I or they we7'e offended 
by it.'* But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun should be placed next 
to the verb, when this can conveniently be done. 

" I or they was offended." What is wrong in this example ? What is the 
Rule for the correction ? 

. 2. 
^' Both (1) of the scholars, or one "Whether one person or more was 
of them at least, was present concerned in the business, does 

at the transaction." not appear.'^ 

'•' Some parts of the ship and cargo " The cares of this life, or the de- 
were recovered ; but neither ceitfulness of riches, has choked 
(2) the sailors nor the captain the seeds of virtue in many a 
was saved." promising (3) mind." 

RULE XVI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE IV. 

A verb in the plural will agree loitJi a collective noun in 
the singular^ when a part only of the individuals is 
meant; as^ ''The council were divided in their sen- 
timents." When the noun expresses the idea of unity ^ 
the verb should be singular; as^ " The council was 
composed wholly of farmers.'' 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea 
of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of 
the whole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural; 
in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The 
peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." 
It would be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort 
make use,'^ etc., because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a nuuiber. 
Ou the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which 
nouns of number have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem 
not to be sufficiently divided in the mind : '^ The court of Rome icere not 
without solicitude." '' The house of commons loere of small weight." " The 
house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." '^ Stephen's party 
were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." '^An army of 
twenty-four thousand ivere assembled." '* What reason have the church of 
HoDie for proceeding in this manner?" '* There is indeed no constitution so 
tame and careless of their own defence." " AH the virtues of mankind are to 
be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable." 
Is not m.ankind, in this place, a noun of multitude, and such as requires the 
pronoun referring to be in the plural number, their ? 

" The peasantry goes barefoot," etc. What correction is necessary in this 
example ? Why ? 

" The people rejoices in that " The court have just ended, after 

which should give it sor- having sat through the trial 

row." of a very long cause." 

"The flock, and not the fleece, "The crowd were so great, that 

are J or ought to be, the oh- the judges with difficulty made 

jects of the shepherd's care." their way through them." 

(1.) -107. il ) Coiijunctioii when followed by nor. (3.) Rule XIIJ. 



130 



ENGLISH GRA.MMAR. 



*The corporation of York consist 
of a mayor, aldermen, and a 
common council." 

'The British parliament are com- 
posed of king, lords, and com^- 
mons." 

' \\^lien the nation complain, the 
rulers should listen to their 
voice." 

' In the days of youth, the multi- 
tude eagerly pursues pleasure 
as its chief good/^ 

^ The church have no power to in- 
flict corporal punishment." 

'The fleet were seen sailing (1) up 
the channel." 

' The regiment consist of a thou- 
sand (2) men." 

^The meeting have established 
several salutary regulations." 

'The council was not unanimous, 
and it separated without com- 
ing (3) to any determina- 
tion." 

' The fleet is all arrived and moored 
(4) in safety." 



'This people draweth near to me 
wdtli their mouth, and honoreth 
me Avith their lips^ but their 
heart is far from me." 

' The committee was divided in its 
sentiments, and it has referred 
the business to the general 
meeting." 

'The committee were very full 
when this point w^as decided; 
and their judgment has not 
been called in question." 

' Why (6) do this generation wish 
for greater evidence, Avhen so 
much (5) is already given?" 

'The remnant of the people were 
persecuted with great sever- 
^ity." 

'jSTever were any people so (6) 
much (6) infatuated (7) as the 
Jewish nation." 

' The shoal of herrings were of an 
immense extent." 

'No society are chargeable with 
the disapproved (8) misconduct 
of particular members." 



-iK- 



RULE V. 

Corresponding with Muiray's GrRmmar, 
RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree icith the nouns for wldch they stand^ 
in gender^ number^ and person. 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which may 
be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. " Each of the sexes should keep 
within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages of 
their particular districts:" better thus; "The sexes should keep within their 
particular bounds," etc. ^' Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be 
fully secure that they shall not be deceived?" "on his entrance/' and "that 
he shall." "One should not think too favorably of ourselves;" "of one's 
se/fV* "He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles;" ^'icho 
poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed 
or implied; as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself;" that is, " the man 
who is fatal to others." 

Who, ruhich, ichat, and the relative that, though in the objective case, are 
always placed before the verb ; as are also their compounds, ic^oei;er, ?tAo- 
ftoever, etc., as, "'He whom ye seek;" " This is whnt, or the thing which, or 
that you want;" "Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied in n manner which appears to be exceptionable ; 
ns, " All fevers, except what nro called nervous," etc. It would at least be 
better to sa}', "except those luhich are called nervous." 

" One should not think too fa-vorably of ourselves." How should this sen- 
tence be altered ? What is the Rule for it ? Are the relatives placed before 
or after the verb ? 



(1.) Rule XIII. 
(6.) Adverb. 



(2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 

(T.) '' were infatuated^ 



(4.) Rule XT. (5.) 673. 

(8.) Rule XIII. 



SYNTAX, 



131 



** The exercise of reason appears as 
(J) little (2) in these sports- 
men, as in the beasts ivhom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom 
they are sometimes hunted." 

"They which seek Wisdom will 
certainly find /ler." 

" The male amongst birds seems to 
discover no beauty, but in the 
color of its species." 

"Take handfuls of ashes of the 
furnace, and let Moses sprinkle 
it towards heaven, in the sight 
of Pharaoh, and it shall be- 
come small dust." 

"Rebecca took goodly raiment, 
which were with her in the 
house, and put them upon 
Jacob." 

"The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth which have 
lost their lives by this means." 

"The fair sex, whose task is not 
to mingle in the labors of pub- 
lic life, has its own part as- 
signed it to act." 

**The Hercules man-of-war foun- 
dered at sea; she overset, and 
lost most (3) of her men." 

*^ The mind of man cannot be long 
without some food to nourish 
the activity of his thoughts." 



" What is the reason that our lan- 
guage is less refined than 
those of Italy, Spain, or 
France ?" 

"I do not think any one should 
incur censure for being (4j 
tender (5) of their reputa- 
tion." 

"Thou who hast been a witness 

(6) of the fact, can give an 
account of it." 

"In religious concerns, or what 

(7) is conceived to be such, 

(8) every man must stand or 
fall by the decision of the great 
Judge." 

"Something like (9) what (10) 
have been here promised, are 
the conjectures of Dry den." 

"Thou great First Cause, (11) 
least understood ! (12) 
Who all my sense confined, (13) 

To know but this, that thou art 
good. 
And that myself (11) am blind, 

Yet gave (14) me in this dark 
estate," etc. 

"What (6) art thou, (11) speak, 
that, (15) on designs un- 
known, (16) 

While others sleep, thus range (17) 
the camp alone?" 



1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of nouns, are not 
often employed in the same part of a sentence as the nouns which they repre- 
sent; for it would be improper to say, " The king he is just;" '* I sa,w her the 
queen;" "The men thei/ were there;'* " Many words they darken speech;" 
*'My banks theif are furnished with bees." These personals are superfluous, 
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where the 
principal word is present. The nominative case they, in the followins; sen- 
tence, is also superfluous: ^MVho, instead of going about doing good, they 
are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." 

"The king he is just." Will you correct this sentence, and tell why it is 
wrong? 

1. 
^* Whoever (18) entertains such often choke the growth of vir- 

an opinion, he judges errone- tue." 

ously." "Disappointments and afflictions, 

" The cares of this world, they however disagreeable, they often 

improve us." 

2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things ; 
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal 

(1.) Rule IX. (2.) Adverb. (3.) 676. (4.) 561. (5.) Rule TV. 

(i^.) Rule XV. n.) ''fhos". ivhich;^ 437. (8.) "such covcerns,'" Rule IV. 

(g.) Rule IV. no ) Rule VI. and X. Note XVII. (U.) Rule XV. (12.) Rule 

XIII. (1.3.) '• cortjined^t." (14.) ".<7are.<" (15.) Coujuactioa 

{IQ.) Rule XIII. (17.) " cias: range." (18.) " J^e w//e." 



132 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

adjective same, it is generally used in preference to loho or which; as, 
'^Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the 
world ever saw;'' '' Catiline's followers were the most profligate that could be 
found in any city;" ''He is the same man that we saw before." There are 
cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as applied 
to persons: as, first, after who, the interrogative; "Who, that has any sense 
of religion, would have argued thus?" Secondly, when persons make but a 
part of the antecedent; "The woman, and the estate, that became his por- 
tion, were too much for his moderation." In neither of these examples could 
any other relative have been used. 

To what is the pronoun that applied ? and when is it used in preference to 
leho or which? (416, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.j Give an example. 

2. 

"Moses was the meekest man "They are the same persons who 

whom we read of in the Old assisted us yesterday.'' 

Testament." " The m^en and things which he has 

" Humility is one of the most ami- studied, have not improved his 

able virtues which we can pos- morals." 

sess." 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are elegantly divided 
by the interposition of the corresponding substantives: thus, "On whichso- 
ever side the king cast his eyes/' would have sounded better if written, " On 
which side soever," etc. 

Will you give an example in which the compound pronoun whichsoever may 
be divided with propriety ? 

3. 
" Howsoever beautiful they appear, contemplated, they appear to 

they have no real merit." advantage." 

"In whatsoever light we view " However much he might despise 
him, his conduct will bear in- the maxims of the king's ad- 

spection." ministration, he kept a total 

" On whichsoever side they are silence on that subject." 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of the 
personal pronouns, in the place of these and those ; as, " Give me them books," 
instead of " those books." We may sometimes find this fault even in writing ; 
as, "Observe the^u three there." We also frequently meet with those instead 
of they at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no particular ref- 
erence to an antecedent; as, ^' Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy;" 
" They that, or they who sow in tears." 

It is not, however, always easy to say whether a personal pronoun or a 
demonstrative is preferable in certain constructions. "We are not unac- 
quainted with the calumny of them [or those'] who openly make use of the 
warmest professions." 

" Give me them books." Why is this sentence incorrect? 

4. ^ ^ 

''Which of them two persons has injuries, than those (2) that 

most distinguished himself?" are most (3) forward in doing 

"None (1) more impatiently suffer (4) them." (6) 

5. The word what is sometimes improperly used for the conjunction 
that: "They will never believe but lohat I have been entirely to 
blame." " I am not satisfied but what," etc., instead of " but that" 
The word someiohat, in the following sentence, seems to be used improp- 
erly : "These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat 

(1.) Rule VI. (2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 677. (4.) 56L (5.) Rule XIV. 



SYNTAX. 133 

an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, " in somewhat of.'* The mean- 
ing is, ^'in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary.'' 

Will you give an example of the improper use of what instead of that ? 

5. 
"He would not be persuaded but "These commendations of his 
what (1) I was greatly in children appear to have been 

fault." made in somewhat (2) an in- 

judicious manner^ 

6. The pronoun relative loho is so much appropriated to persons, that there 
is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of 
persons, or the general terms man, woman, etc. A term which implies only 
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will 
hardly authorize the use of it; as, "That the faction in England who most 
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions.'' '^ That faction which," would 
have been better ; and the same remark will serve for the following examples : 
" France, t^Ao was in alliance with Sweden/' '' The court irAo," etc. "The 
cavalry ?oAo," etc. " The cities loho aspired to liberty." " That party among 
us who," etc. "The family lohoni they consider as usurpers." 

In some cases, it may be doubtful whether this pronoun is properly ap- 
plied or not; as, "The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some 
cities abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, 
it may in many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company 
whom he most affected could cure him of the melancholy under which he 
labored." The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 
How is the relative who used ? 

6. 
" He instructed and fed the crowds " He was the ablest minister which 

who (3) surrounded him." James ever posse-sed." 

" Sidney was one of the wisest and " The court, who gives currency 
most active governors, vjhich to manners, ought to be ex- 

Ireland had enjoyed for several emplary." (4) 

years." " I am happy in the friend which 

I have long proved." 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives 
us the idea of reason and reflection : and, therefore, the application of the 
personal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh : " A child who." It is 
still more improperly applied to animals: "A lake frequented by that fowl 
whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 

Do we say, "A child who," or "A child which" ? Will you repeat the Note 
for this ? 

7. 
"The child i£;Ao?n we have just seen, "He is like (4) a beast (5) of 
is v/holesomely fed, and not in- pi'ey, who destroys w^ithout 

jured by bandages or clothing." pity." 

8. AVhen the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not 
refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. "It is no 
wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, loho was 
but another name for prudence and economy." Better thus : "who was so 
remarkable for her prudence," etc. The word whose begins likewise to be 
restricted to ])ersons; yet it is not done so generally but that good writers, 
even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construction is not, 
however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following instances : 
" Pleasure, whose nature," etc. " Call every production, ichose parts and 
whose nature," etc. 

(1.) ^^ihat.'^ Conjimction. (2.) "an a manner which is, in some respects, injudi' 

cious:' (3.) " that:' (4.) Rule IV. (5.) Rule X. Note XVII. 

LA 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to 
persons; and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, or a 
particular person among a number of others. We should then say, " Which 
of the two,'' or ^^ Which of them is he or she?" 

" The court of Queen Elizabeth, who," etc. Will you correct this sentence, 
and give the Note for it ? 

8. 
"Having once disgusted (1) him, deceive and betray, should be 

he could never regain the favor avoided as the poisonous ad- 

of Nero, ivko was indeed another der." 

Tiame for cruelty." ''Who of those men came to his 

"Flattery, whose nature (2) is to assistance?" 

9. As the relative pronoun has no distinction of number, we sometimes find 
an ambiguity in the use of it; as, when we say, *' The disciples of Christ, 
whom we imitate," we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his dis- 
ciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon 
the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present 
its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or 
ambiguity. 

What is remarked in this Note on the use of the relative pronoun ? 

9. 
"The king (3) dismissed his min- "There are millions of people in 
ister without any inquiry ; who the empire (4) of China whose 

had never before committed so support is derived almost en- 

nnjust an action." tirely from rice." 

10. It is and it teas are often, after the manner of the French, used in a 
plural construction, and by some of our best writers; as, ^^It is either a few 
great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
ringleader;" "'Itisthej that are the real authors, though the soldiers are 
the actors of the revolution ;" "It ions the heretics that first began to rail," 
etc.; "'Tis these that early taint the female mind." This license in the 
construction of it is (if it be proper to admit it at all) has, however, been 
certainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made a very 
awkward one: "It is wonderful the very few accidents which, in several 
years, happen from this practice." 

How are it is and it was often used ? Give an example in which they are 
used incorrectly in this sense. 

10. _ ^ 
" It is remarkable his continual " It is indisputably true his asser- 
endeavors to serve us, notwith- tion, though it is a paradoij^ 

standing our ingratitude." (5.) (6) 

11. The interjections ! oh ! and ah ! require the objective case of a pro- 
noun in the first person after them; as, " me ! Oh me! Ah me!" but the 
nominative case in the second person; as, '^ thou persecutor !"'' ye 
hypocrites !" " thou who dwellest," etc. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fre- 
quently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or a pronoun of the mas- 
culine or the feminine gender; as, " It was I;" " It was the man or the woman 
that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood : thus, we say, 
*^ As appears, as follows," for ''As it appears, as it follows;" and "May be," 
for " It may be." 

(1.) '■''Having dii'gustedy Rule XIII. (2.) '■'■ the nature of which.y (3) ^' The ?mig, 
tvho had iipver,'" etc. (4.) " Tliere are in the empire,'''' etc. (5.) " His continual,^' 

etc.; ending the sentence with ^'are remarkable.''^ (6.) ''''His assertion, though para- 

doxical,'' etc. 



SYNTAX. 135 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express — 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry; as, " /t happened on a sum- 
mer's day;" '• Who is it that calls on me?" 

2d. The state or condition of any person or thing; as, "How is it with 
you?" 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event; or 
any person considered merely as a cause ; as, '' We heard her say it was not 
he ;" ^' The truth is, it was I that helped her." 

Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh I !" ? Why incorrect to say, " Oh thee!"? 

11. 
" Ah [ unhappy thee, who art deaf " On ! happy we, surrounded with 
to the calls of duty and of so many blessings." 

honor." 

RULE XXIV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE YI. 

Th.e relative is the nominative case to the verb^ lohen no 
nominative case comes between it and the verb ; as^ '^ The 
master loho taught us;" ^' The trees which are 
planted." ■ 

When a nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb^ the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of the sentence ; as^ "^ He who preserves 
n~ie, to whom I owe uiy being, whose I am, and ivhom 
I serve, is eternal." 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a dif- 
ferent office. In the first member it marks the agent ; in the second, it sub- 
mits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the 
possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must 
be in the three different cases correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and the relative become nominatives, each to dif- 
ferent verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the antecedent 
to the latter verb ; as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, 
consififs more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great 
talents and extensive knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of 
the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part: " How can we 
avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved 
themselves our real friends?" "These are the men whom, you might sup- 
pose, were the authors of the work." " If you were here, you would find 
three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably." In nil 
these places, it should be loho instead of whom. The two latter sentences 
contain a nominative between the relative and the verb, and. therefore, 
seem to contravene the rule; but the student will reflect, that it is not the 
nominative of the verb with which the relative is connected. — The remain- 
ing examples refer to the second part of the rule : '^Men of fine talents are 
not always the persons who we should esteem." " The persons who you dis- 
pute with are precisely of your opinion." ^' Our tutors are our benefactors, 
who we owe obedience to, and who we ought to love." In these sentences, 
tchom should be used instead of who. 

'* These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," etc. Will you cor- 
rect this example, and give the rule for it ? 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" We are dependent on each other's " They who have labored to make 

assistance : whom is there that us wise and good, are the per- 

can subsist by himself?" sons who we ought to love and 

" If he will not hear his best friend, respect, and who we ought to 

whom shall be sent to admonish be grateful to." 

him ?" " The persons, who conscience and 

^^Thej who (1) much is given to, virtue support, may smile at 

will have much (2) to answer the caprices of fortune." 

for." (3) " From the character of those who 

^^ It is not to be expected that you associate wdth, your own 

they, ivhom in early life have wilt be estimated." 

been dark and deceitful, should " That (4) is the student who I 

afterwards become fair and in- gave the book to, and whom, I 

genuous." am persuaded, deserves it." 

1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the nonn or 
pronoun containing the answer must be in the same case as that which con- 
tains the question; as, '' Whose books are these?" *^ They are John's." 
'' Who gave them to him ?'* *' We." " Of whom did you buy them V " Of a 
bookseller; him who lives at the Bible and Crown.^^ ^' Whom did you see 
there?" "Both hivi and the shopman." The learner will readily compre- 
hend this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. 
Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, " They are .John's 
books ;" " We gave them to him ;" " We bought them of him who lives," 
etc.; "We saw both him and the shopman." As the relative pronoun, when 
used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the 
answer to the question, that word or phrase may properly be termed the 
subsequent to the interrogative. 

" Of whom did you buy them ?" " Of a bookseller ; he who lives,'' etc. 
What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the 
Note for it ? 

1. 
"Of whom were the articles "Who was the money paid to?" 

bought ?" " Of a mercer ; he " To the mercer and his 

(5) who resides near (6) the clerk." 

mansion-house." " Yvlio counted it?" "Both the 

" Was any person besides (6) the clerk and him." 

mercer present ?" " Yes, both 

him and his clerk." 

RULE XXV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE VII. 

WheM the relative is preceded hy two nominatives of 
different persons^ the relative and the verb may agree in 
person with either^ according to the sense; as^ ''I am 
the man loho command you ;" or^ '' I am the man icho 
commands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning 
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, '^ I, who command 
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring 
the relative to different antecedents will be more evident to the learner in the 

(1.) " to xohomr (2.) 673. (3.) 596. (4.) Note I. 405. 

(5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. 



SYNTAX. 187 

following seDtences : " I am the general who gives the orders to-day ;" " I am 
the general, who ^I're the orders to-day;" that is, "I, who give the orders 
to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either 
of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence: as in the following instance : " I am the Lord, that maketh all 
things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is 
consistent : the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb 
agrees with the relative in the third person : " I am the Lord, which Lord, or 
he that, maketh all things." If /were made the antecedent, the relative and 
the verb should agree with it in the first person ; as, ^*/ am the Lord, that make 
all things ; that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it follow, " that 
spreadeth abroad the earth by myself/' there would arise a confusion of per- 
sons, and a manifest solecism. 

''■ I am the man who command you.'* " I am the man who commands you." 
What is the nominative to command in the first sentence ? What to commands 
in the second? Rule for each? Why is the verb of a different person in dif- 
ferent sentences ? 

^'I acknowledge that (1) I am "I perceive that thou art a pupil 

the teacher (5), who adopt who possesses bright parts, but 

that sentiment, and maintains who hast cultivated them but 

the propriety of such meas- (3) little." (4) 

ures." (2) " Thou art he (5) who breathest on 

"Thou art a friend (5) that hast the earth vdth the breath of 

often relieved me, and that spring, and who covereth it 

has not deserted me now, in with verdure and beauty." 

the time of peculiar need." "I am the Lord (5) thy God (5), 

" I am the man who approves of who teacheth thee to profit, 

wholesome discipline, and who and who lead thee by the way 

reconimend it to others ; but I thou shouldst go." 

am not a person who promotes " Thou art the Lord who did choose 

useless severity, or who object Abraham, and bronghtest him 

to mild and generous treat- forth (4) out of (6)Tjr of the 

ment." Chaldees." 

RULE IV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE Till. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns or j^ronouns ickick they 

describe. 
Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in 
number with the nouns to which they belong. 

I. ADJECTIVE PEOXOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : *• I have not 
travelled this twenty years :*' " these twenty.*' "I am not reeommen din*:' these 
kind of sufferings :" " this kind.-" '' Those set of books was a valuable pres- 
ent :*' " that set.'' 

" I have not travelled this twenty years." How should this be altered ? Why ? 

^'These kind of indulgences soften playing (9) this two hours." 

and injure the mind." (10) 
*''LQStead (7) of improving (8) *' Those sort of favors did real 
yourselves, you have been injury, under the appearanca 
^ of kindness." 

(1.) 652. (2.~, '' o.doptR and maintains,^' or "• adrrpt and maintain," (3.) 654. 

(4.) Adverb. (5.) Kule XY. [p.)2±l. (7.) 247. (8-1661. (9.) Rule XHI. 

(10.; Rule XXII. 646. 

TO* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

^ The chasm made ( 1 ) by the e^rth- "How many a sorrow (5) should 
quake was twenty foot i (2) we avoid, if we were not indus- 

broad (3), and one hundred trious to make them !" 

fathom (4) in depth.'^ "He saw one or more persons (6) 

enter (7) the garden.'^ 

1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase '^ hy this means,^* 
'^ hy that means/' are used by our best and most correct writers ,• namely, 
Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, etc.* They are, indeed, 
in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, if not affected, 
to apply the old singular form, and say, *^ by this mean ;" " by that mean ;" 
'^ it was by a mean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general analogy of 
the language. " The word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class of 
words which do not change their termination on account of number; for it is 
used alike in both numbers." 

The word amende is used in this manner, in the following sentences: 
" Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country ,• and 
with this amends he was content." *' Peace of mind is an honorable amends 
for the sacrifice of interest." *' In return, he received the thanks of his em- 
ployers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends for all 
his labors." '^ We have described the rewards of vice i the good man's 
amends are of a different nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted that this word amends (like the word means) had 
formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived from 
the French amende, though now it is exclusively established in the plural 
form. If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in the singu- 
lar, because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of argument 
may be advanced in favor of the singular amende; and the general analogy 
of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has the following remark on the 
subject before us : '* No persons of taste will, I presume, venture so far to vio- 
late the present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the generality 
of readers, as to say, * By this mean, by that mean,' " 

(1.) Rule XIII. (2.) Note XVIII. 648. (3.) " chasm— hroady Enle IV. (4.) Rule IX. 
(5.) '^man// sorroivsJ''' (6.) " one person, or more than one.'^ (7.) Rule XII. 

* ^^By this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with a 
long march." Bacox. 

" Bi/ this means one great restraint from doing evil would he taken away." " And this 
is an admirable means to improve men in virtue," *^ By that yncans tliey have rendered 
their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

"It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that meons securing the 
continuance of his goodness." " A good character, when established, should not be rested 
in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good." Atterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." " lie by that means preserves his 
superiority." Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food " Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

*' Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles," 

Dean Swift. 

" There is no means of escaping the persecution." *' Faith is not only ameans of obey- 
ing, but a principal act of obedience." DR. Young. 

*' He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power." 

Lop.D Lyttelton's Henry" II. 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his safety." 

Goldsmith. 

** Lest this means should fail." ** By means of ship-money, the late king," etc. " The 
only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 

''By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," etc. 

Blackstone. 

" By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 

Dr. Robertson. 

*' J5.V this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 

*' By this means the wrath of man was n\ade to turn ag:ain«t jtself." Dr. Blair. 

" A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," etc. " Birds, in general, procure 
their food by m^ans of their beak,"" Dr. Paley. 



SYNTAX. 139 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular 
number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point, but rather 
dubiously, as if they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities as 
well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the applica- 
tion of this word to the singular number, appears from their own language: 
** Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become members of 
other sentences by means of some additional connection." — Dr. Lowth's In- 
troduction to English Grammar. 

** There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, 
but by means of something already known." — Dri. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes no use, as 
far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean ; though there are several 
instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and connection 
contended for. "By this means thou sbalt have no portion on this side the 
river." Ezra iv. 16. ''That by means of death," etc. Heb. ix. 15. It will 
scarcely be pretended that the translators of the sacred volumes did not accu- 
rately understand the English language, or that they would have admitted 
one form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their determination been 
conformable to the best usage. An attempt, therefore, to recover an old word, 
so long since disused b}^ the most correct writers, seems not likely to be success- 
ful ; especially as the rejection of it is not attended with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of 
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the stand- 
ard of language; especially if, in particular instances, this practice continue 
after objection and due consideration. Every connection and application of 
words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to 
respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 

" Si volet usns, 

Quern Irenes arbitrium est, efjus, et norma loquendi." HoRACE. 

On tbis principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the 
general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con- 
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following : 
** None of them are varied to express the gender;" and yet none originally 
. signified no one. " He himself shall do the work;" here, what was at first 
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
" You have behaved yourselves w^ell :" in this example, the word you is put in 
the nominative case plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was con- 
fined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is 
the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously 
opposing the decision of proper authorit}^, and contending for obsolete modes 
of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity, and, 
in some degree, obscure points that are suflaciently clear and decided; but he 
cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner 
in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious are certainly within the grammarian's 
province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, 
'analogy, and propriety, and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan- 
guage : but when authority speaks out, and decides the point, it were perpet- 
ually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, then, 
under the limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the plainest 
analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the 
word mean in the old form hr.s a very uncouth appearance : " By the mean 
of adversity we are often instructed." '' He preserved his health by mean 
of exercise." "Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." They 
should be, "By means of adversity," etc.; ''By means of exercise," etc.; 
*' Frugality is one means,'' etc. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1) mean in the singu- 

(1.) Xouns are sometimes called substantives. 



140 e:n"glish gkammae. 

lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, etc., 
as, '^ This is a mean between the two extremes/' But in the sense of instru- 
mentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost every 
writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what is 
singular; these means and those means, when they respect plurals; as, ^^ He 
lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health;'' ''The scholars 
were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors, and by these means 
acquired knowledge." 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to re- 
flect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of propriety 
in the use of language. 

In what number is the word means used? What does Dr. Priestley remark 
concerning the use of this word? What other word is used in this manner? 
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, " By this 
mean"? Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of means in the 
singular number? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1) mean in 
the singular number? Give an example. When should "this means" and 
"that means" be used? When ''these means" and "those means"? 

1. 
" Charles was extravagant, and by ^' This person embraced every op- 

this mean became poor and portunity to display his talents, 

despicable." and by these means rendered 

"It was by that ungenerous mean himself ridiculous." 

that (2) he obtained his end." "Joseph v/as industrious, frugal, 
" Industry is the mean of obtaining and discreet, and by this 

competency." means obtained property and 

" Though a promxising measure, it is reputation." 

a mean which I cannot adopt." 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in 
reference to the former, and this, in reference to the latter; as, "Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man 
would be inactive; and but for this, he would be active to no end." 

How are the pronouns that and this used ? 

2. 

" Eeligion raises m.en above them- upon the earth in those than in 

selves; irreligion sinks them these; because there is a much 

beneath the brutes : that (3) slower evaporation." 

binds them down (4) to a poor, "Eex and Tyranniis are of very 
pitiable speck of perishable different characters. The one 

earth; this opens for them a (3) rules his people by laws to 

prospect to the skies." which they consent ; the other, 

"More rain falls in the first two (5) by his absolute will and 

summer months than in the power: this is called freedom; 

first two winter ones ; but it that (5), tyranny." 

makes a much greater show 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with the 
nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only; as, " The king 
of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on liis throne;" 
^^ Every tree is known hy its fruit ;" unless the plural noun conve;,' a col- 
lective idea; as, ^' Every six months;" " iT-yer?/ hundred years." The fol- 
lowing phrases are exceptionable: "Let each esteem others better than 
themselves;" it ought to be ^'himse]/." "The language should be both 
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities are 
wanting, the language is imperfect;" it should be, " ?s v/p.nting." ''Every 

(1.) Note 1, p. 139. (2.) 652. (3.) 407. Rule VI. (i.) Adverb. (5.) Rule XI. 



SYNTAX. 141 

one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment;'* 
*' bears a regular date, and contains." ^^ Every town and village were burned; 
every grove and every tree were cut down ;" '* loas burned, and icas cut down." 

Either is often used improperly instead of each; as, "The king of Israel, 
and Jeboshapbat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne;'* 
" Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." Each 
signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; ei^Aer properly signifies 
only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively. 

" The king of Israel, nnd Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them 
on their throne." Will you correct this, and give the rule for it ? 

3. 

"Each of tliern, in their (1) turn, productive of much (7) inward 

receive the benefits to which joy or bitterness." 

f/<e?/ are entitled." "Whatever (8) he undertakes, 

" My counsel to each of you is, that either (9) his pride or his folly 

you (2) should make it your disgust us." 

endeavor to come to a friendly " Every man and every woman 

agreement." were numbered." 

" By discussing what (3) relates to " Neither of those men seem to have 

each particular, in their order, any idea that their opinions 

we shall better understand the may be ill founded." 

subject." " Vriien benignity and gentleness 

"Every person, whatever (4) be reign within, (7) we are alw^ ays 

their station, (5) are bound by (7) least (7) in hazard from 

the duties of morality and re- without: (10) every person and 

ligion." every occurrence are beheld in 

"Every leaf, every twig, (6) every the most favorable light." 

drop of water, teem wirh life." " On either side of the river was 

" Every man's heart and temper is there the tree of life." 

4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs; as, '^Indif- 
ferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor;" instead of *' Indifi'erently 
honest; excellently well ; miserabh^ poor." " He behaved himself ' conform- 
able to that great example ;" " confonnabh/." '' Endeavor to live hereafter 
suitable to a person in thy station;" '^ snitahh/." ''I can never think so very 
mean of him;" '^meanly." ''He describes this river agreeable to the common 
reading;" ^'agreeably." "Agreeable to my promise, I now write;" ^^agree- 
ably." "Thy exceeding great reward;" when united to an adjective or ad- 
verb not ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it : as, " exceedingly 
dreadful, exceedingly great;" "exceedingly well, exceedingly more active:" 
but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective having that termination, the 
ly is omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding clearly and reason exceeding 
forcibly ;" " She appeared on this occasion exceeding lovely." " He acted 
in this business bolder than was expected." " They behaved the noblest, 
because they were disinterested." Here the adverbs should be, " more boldly, 
most nobly." The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied; as, "He was 
such an extravagant young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few 
years;" it should be, "so extravagant a young man." "I never before saw 
such large trees;" *' saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or 
nature of a thing, the word siich is properly applied ; as, "Such a temper is 
seldom found :" but when degree is signified, we use the word so; as, "So 
bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives; as, "The tutor ad- 
dressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence;" ^'suitable." 

(1.) '-his:' (2.) '-he.:' (3.) 437. (4.) Rule XT. (5.) Rule YI. 

{a.) Rule XI. . (7.) Adverb. (8.) Rule VIII. (9.) 659. (10.) ''from 

without,''' i. e., " externally.''^ 58^. ... 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed f ^^ colitary." '* He 
lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;" " agreeable.'' 
" The study of syntax should be previously to that of punctuation -," ^^ previous.'* 
Young persons who study grammar find it difficult to decide, in particular 
constructions, whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point may serve to inform their judgment and direct 
their determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the 
adjective and the adverb, and consider whether, in the case in question, 
quality or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper; 
in the latter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction, 
and prove useful on other occasions. 

" She looks cold — She looks coldly on him." 
*'He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him." 
^^He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous." 
** She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense." 
" Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly." 

*^ Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in repu- 
tation." 

" They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest." 
^' The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point." 

The verb to he, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word 
immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb; and, conse- 
quently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying the 
sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an 
adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations: ^' This is 
agreeable to our interest." ^' That behavior was not suitable to his station." 
"Rules should be conformable to sense." "The rose smells [is] sweet." 
"How sweet the hay smells [is]!" "How delightful the country appears 
[is] !" "How pleasant the fields look [are] !" " The clouds look [are] dark." 
"How black the sky looked [was] !" "The apple tastes [is] sour." *' How 
bitter the plums tasted [were] !" "He feels [is] happy." In all these sen- 
tences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to he, 
for the other verbs. But in the following sentences we cannot do this : " The 
dog smells disagreeably." "George feels exquisitely." "How pleasantly 
she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this Note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language everywhere encounter us; but 
we must not reject rules because they are attended with exceptions. 

Why is "indifferent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do we say, "ex- 
ceeding dreadful," and "exceeding great"? What, then, do we use in the 
place of exceeding ? When, then, do we use exceedingly ? When exceeding ? 
" The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." 
Why is this sentence wrong ? Correct it. How can we toll whether an adjective 
or an adverb ought to be used? Which do we use when quality is indicated ? 
Which, when manner is indicated? Which does the verb to he generally re- 
quire to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb ? To illustrate the distinct 
and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give you some exam- 
ples. Would you, then, say, " He is diligently and attentively," or " diligent 
and attentive"? "She will be happy," or "happily"? "He looks cold," or 
" coldly" ? " She looks cold on him." Can we use is for looks, and make sense ? 
Would you, then, say, " She looks cold on him," or "coldly on him"? "She 
lives freely [is] from care" ? Why ? " He lives free at another's expense" ? 
" He feels warmly" ? " He feels warm the insult offered him" ? " He became 
sincerely and virtuously" ? "' He became sincere virtuous" ? Why ? " Harriet 
always appears neatly — She dresses neat" ? " Charles has grown great by his 
wisdom — He is grown great in his reputation"? "They now appear happily 
■ — They now appear ha[)py in earnest"? "The statement seems exactly — 
The statement seems exact in point"? "How sweetly the hay smells!'^? 
" How delightful the country an pears !" ? " How pleasant the fields look !" 1 
" The clouds look darkly"? •• The apples taste sourly"? 



SYNTAX. 



Uc 



4. 



" She reads proper, Avrites very neat, 
and composes accurate.^' 

"He was extreme prodigal, and his 
property is now near exhaust- 
ed." 

" They generally succeeded ; for 
they lived conformable to the 
rules' of prudence." 

" We may reason very clear and ex- 
ceeding strong, without know- 
ing that there is such a thing 
as a syllogism." 

"He had many virtues, and was 
exceeding beloved J^ 

" The amputation was exceeding 
well performed, and saved the 
patient's life." 

" He came agreeable to his promise, 
and conducted himself suitable 
to the occasion." 

" He speaks very fluent, reads ex- 
cellent, but does not think very 
coherent." 

"He behaved himself submissive, 
and was exceeding careful not 
to give (1) offence." 

"They rejected the advice, and con- 
ducted themselves exceedingly 
indiscreetly." 

" He is a person of great abilities, 
and exceeding upright ; and is 
like to be a rery useful member 
(2j of the community." 



" The cons])iracy was the easier 
(3) discovered, from its (4) 
being known (5) to many." 

" Not being fully acquainted with 
the subject, he could affirm no 
stronger (6) than he did." 

" He was so deeply impressed with 
the subject, that few could speak 
nobler upon it." 

" We may credit his testimony, for 
he says express, that he saw the 
transaction." 

" Use a little wine for thy stomach's 
sake, and thine often (7) in- 
firmities." 

" From these favorable beginnings, 
we may hope for a soon (8) 
and prosperous issue." 

"He addressed several exhorta- 
tions to them suitably to their 
circumstances." 

" Conformably to their vehemence 
of thought, was their vehe- 
mence of gesture." 

" We should implant in the minds 
of youth such seeds and prin- 
ciples of piety and virtue, as 
(9) are likely to take soonest 
and deepest root." 

"Such (10) an amiable disposition 
will secure universal regard." 

" Such distinguished virtues seldom 
occur." 



5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided: such as, "a 
worser conduct:" ''on lesser hopes:*' '"' a more serener temper;" '' the most 
straitest sect :" '^ a more superior work." They should be, '• worse conduct ;'' 
*Mess hopes;" *^ a more serene temper;" '* the straitest sect;" "a superior 
work." 



^' A worser conduct." Will 
for it ? 



you correct this sentence, and give the Rule 
5. 



"'Tis more easier to build two 
chimneys than to maintain 
one." 

"The tongue is like (11) a race- 
horse, (12) which runs the 
faster (13) the lesser w^ eight it 
carries." 



" The pleasures of the understand- 
ing are more preferable than 
(14) those of the imagination, 
or of sense." 

" The nightingale sings : hers is 
the most sweetest voice in the 
strove." 



(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Rule XV. (3.) " more easily r (4.) Rule I. 

(5.) " being known " — paitioipial noun. (6.) " not affirm more strongly." 

(7.) '' thy frequent:'' (8.) '■speedy:' f9.) 656. "(10.) " A disposition 

60 amiable,'' etc. See the Note, a few lines before the close. (11.) Rule IV. 

(12.) Rule X.— Note XYII. 647. (13.) 590. (14.) '' preferalle to:' 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The Most Highest hath created '^ The Supreme Being is the most 
us for his glory, and for our wisest, and most powerfullest, 

own happiness." and the most best of beings." 

6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification do not 
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as 
chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme, etc. ; which are sometimes 
improperly written chiefest, extremest, perfectest, Tightest, most universal, 
most supreme, etc. The following expressions are^ therefore, improper : 
*^ He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." '^ The quarrel 
became so universal and national." **A method of attaining the Tightest 
and greatest happiness." The phrases <' so perfect," ''so right," "so 
extreme," ''so universal," etc., are incorrect; because they imply that one 
thing is less perfect, less extreme, etc., than another, which is not possible. 

Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work" ? Why not? 

6. 

"Virtue confers the supremest (1) "His work is perfect; (4) his 

dignity on man ; and should be brother's, more perfect ; and 

his chiefest desire." his father's, the most perfect 

**His assertion was 7nore true (2) of all." 

than that of his opponent ; nay, " He gave the fullest and most sin- 
the words of the latter were cere proof of the truest friend- 
most untrue." (3) ship." 

7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of com- 
parison are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong 
construction in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, ad- 
mitted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if 
it were the superlative. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted 
fewe** corruptions than any other." We commonly say, " This is the weaker 
of tbe two," or, the " weakest of the two ;" but the former is the regular 
mode of expression, because there are only two things compared. " The vice 
of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." '* Pie 
celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all others." Both 
these modes of expression are faulty : we should not say, " the best of any 
man," or, " the best of anj^ other man," for '•' the best of men." The sentences 
may be corrected by substituting the comparative in the room of the super- 
lative : " The vice, etc., is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." 
" He celebrates, etc., as more perfect than any other." It is also possible to 
retain the superlative, and render the expression grammatical: "Covetous- 
ness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." "He celebrates, etc., as 
the most perfect of all churches." These sentences contain other errors, 
against which it is proper to caution the learner. The words deeper and 
deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most 
deeply. The phrases more perfect and most pjerfect are improper; because 
perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say, nearer or near- 
est to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

In speaking of two persons, should we say, '* The weaker of the two," or, 
" The weakest of the two" ? Why ? 

7. 
" A talent of this kind would, per- " He spoke with so much propriety, 
haps, prove the likeliest of any that I understood him the best 

other (5) to succeed." of all the others (6) who spoke 

"He is the strongest of the two, on the subject." 

but not the wisest J ^ " Eve was the fairest of all her 

daughters." 

(1.) ^'' the supremest — supreme."'' (2.) ^^ better founded.'' (3.) '^ not true.'' 

(4.) '^ ivell executed — still — better — best.'" (5.) "a//.*' (6.) '^ of all who.'" 



SYNTAX. 145 

8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan- 
tives, even by words which modify their meaning and make but one sense 
with them : as, "A large enough number, surely/' It should be, ''A number 
large enough." " The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one not 
very distant from them." 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive; as, "A generous 
man :" ^* B.ow amioMe a woman !" The instances in which it comes after the 
substantive are the toUowing : 

1st. When something depends upon the adjective; and when it gives a 
better sound, especially in poetry; as, " A man generous to his enemies;" 
*' Feed me with food convenient for me ;" " A tree three feet thick ;" '' A body 
of troops fifty thousand strong;" '* The torrent tumbling through rocks 
abrujjt." 

2d. When the adjective is emphatical; as, *• Alexander the Great;" 
'^ Lewis the Bold;" -^Goodness infinite;" "Wisdom unsearchable." 

3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, '^A man just, 
wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous." 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb; as, "A boy regularly 
studious :" " A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a substan- 
tive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or follow 
it; as, " The man is happy" or, ^' Happy is the man, who makes virtue his 
choice;" " The interview was delightful" or, ^' Delightful was the interview." 

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive 
placed after an active verb ; as, '' Vanity often renders its possessors despica- 
ble." In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the sub- 
stantive ; as, '' How despicable does vanity often render its possessor I" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective 
before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it; as, " Great and 
marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty; just and true are thy ways, 
thou King of saints." Rev. xv. 3. 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars 
comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some- 
times a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is 
used in conjunction with this adjective; as, " Royalists, republicans, church- 
men, sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun in the plural number will sometimes properly asso- 
ciate with a singular noun ; as, " Our desire, your intention, their resigna- 
tion." This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than 
to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word; 
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on; 
as, *' An old man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in- 
stances, put as if it were absolute; especially where the noun has been men- 
tioned before, or easily understood, thougli not expressed; as, "I often sur- 
vey it." 

Is it correct to say, " A large enough number" ? How should it be altered ? 
What is the Note for it ? Should the adjective be placed usually before or 
after the noun ? 

8. 

" He spoke in a distinct enough. pair of gloves : he is the ser= 

manner to be heard bv the vant of an old rich (2) man." 

whole assembly." ' ^^The two first (3) in the row are 

" Thomas is equipped with a new cherry-trees, the two others are 

(1) pair of shoes, and a new pear-trees." ^ 

(1.) " a pair of new sJwes.^^ (2.) " rich old.^^ (3.) Note I. — Kule YI. 

13 K 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE II. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE IX. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the 
singular number, 

RULE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular 
or the plural number. 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied, according to their distinct nature; as, "• Gold is corrupting; the sea 
is green ; a lion is bold/' 

It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken 
of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still uncer- 
tain which ; the determines which it is, or, if many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a 
and the, and of the force of the substantive without any article : " 3fan was 
made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men ; but a man 
will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom he 
has the most frequent intercourse, and enter into a still closer union with the 
man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own/' 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit 
a few instances : "And I persecuted this way unto the death.'* The apostle 
does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general ; the definite 
article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought to be, "unto death," without 
any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth ;" 
that is, according to this translation, " into all truth whatsoever, into truth 
of all kinds ;" — very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from 
the original, " into all the truth /' that is, " into all evangelical truth, all 
truth necessary for you to know." 

"Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the wheel/' used 
as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. " The 
Almighty hath given renson to a man to be a light unto him /' it should 
rather be, " to man/' in general. " This day is salvation come to this house, 
forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham /' it ought to be, " a son of 
Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use 
of the article, and the excellence of the English language in this respect; 
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the 
extent of signification of common names. 

What is the nature of the articles ? What does the article a determine ? 
What the article the ? 

" The fire, the air, the earth, and " (4) Wisest and best men some- 

the water, are four elements times commit errors.'^ 

(1) of the philosophers/' "Beware of drunkenness; it im- 
" Reason was given to a man to pairs understanding ; Vv^astes 

control his passions.'' an estate ; destroys a reputa- 

" We have within us an intelli- tion ; consumes the body ; and 

gent principle, distinct from renders the (5) man of the 

(2) body and from matter/' brightest parts the (5) com- 
**^ man is the noblest work of (3) mon jest (6) of the meanest 

creation/' clown." 

• •^si;^ • 

(1.) " Fire, air," etc.— — " the four/' etc. (2.) " the body." (3.) " the creation." 

(4.) " The wisest." (5.) " a." (6.) Rule XV. 



SYNTAX, 



L47 



" He is a much better writer than 

a reader." 
"The king has conferred on him 

the title of a duke." 
" There are some evils of life which 

equally affect prince and peo- 

ple.'^ 
" We must act our part with a con= 

stancy, though reward of our 

constancy be (1) distant." 
" We are placed here under a trial 

of our virtue." 
" The virtues like his are not easily 

acquired. Such qualities honor 

the nature of a man." 



" Purity has its seat in the heart, 
but extends iis influence over 
so much of outward conduct, 
as to form the great and ma- 
terial part of a character." 

" The profligate man is seldom or 
never found to be the good hus- 
band, the good father, or the 
beneficent neighbor." 

''True charity is not the meteor 
which occasionally glares, but 
the luminary which, in its 
orderly and regular course, 
dispenses benignant influ- 



1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omission 
of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence/" my meaning 
is positive. If I say, '' He behaved with little reverence," my meaning is 
negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in the 
same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ,• by the latter, I dispraise 
him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may 
better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of nuuiber. 
When I say, '^ There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and 
mean to represent them as inconsiderable: whereas, when I sny, "There 
were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them. 

What is the difference in meaning between the expressions, "We behaved 
with a little reverence," and, " We behaved with little reverence" ? 



"He has been much censured for 
conducting himself with a lit- 
tle attention to his business." 

" So bold a breach of order called 
for (2) little severity in punish- 
ing the oflfender." 

" His error was accompanied with 
so little contrition and candid 
acknowledgment, that he found 
a few persons to intercede for 
him." 



1. 



"There were so many mitigating 
(3) circumstances attending 
his misconduct, particularly 
that (4) of his open confes- 
sion, that he found (5) few 
friends who were disposed to 
interest themselves in his fa- 



" As his misfortunes were the fruit 
of his own obstinacy, a few per- 
sons pitied him." 

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two 
words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeat it 
in this case. " There were many hours, both of the night and day, which 
he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might have been, 
*'of the night and of the day." And, for the sake of emphasis, we often re- 
peat the article in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this title would secure 
him an ample and an independent authority." 

Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same construction ? 

2. 
" The^fear of shame, (6) the desire " He was fired with desire of doing 



of approbation, prevent many 
bad actions." 
" In this business he was influenced 
by a just and (7 j generous prin- 
ciple." 



something, though he knew not 
yet, with distinctness, either 
end or means." 



(1.) 464. 
Rule XIV. 



(2.) -'a little," (3.) 559. (4.) "that drcwrastowc^." Note I.- 

(5.) " a few,"' 359. (6.) "anc^the." (7.) "a generous.' 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the 
articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a 
grave style. " At worst, time might be gained by this expedient.'' '' At the 
worst,'' would have been better in this place. ^* Give me here John Baptist's 
head." There would have been more dignity in saying, "John the Baptist's 
head;'' or, "the head of John the Baptist." 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by 
an epithet. "In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are 
surprised at not finding him the great man." "I own I am often surprised 
that he should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the 
pronoun possessive; as, "He looks him full in the face;" that is, "in his 
face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground;" 
that is, '^ their foreheads." 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, 
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after 
the substantive. "Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a 
commonwealth is a constitution ilie most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries." "With such a specious title as that of blood, which, with 
the multitude, is always a claim the strongest and the most easily compre- 
hended." " They are not the men in the nation the most difi&cult to be re- 
placed." 

"At worst, time might be gained," etc. What word may properly be 
inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for it ? 

3. 

" At worst, I could but incur a gen- " At best, his gift was but a poor 
tie reprimand." offering, when we consider his 

estate." 

RULE I. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE X. 

The possessive case is governed by the folloioing noun. 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there is 
BO variation of case; as, '' Ueorge, King of Great Britain, Elector of Hanover," 
etc.; " Pompey contended with Caesar, the greatest general ot his time;" 
" Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus cir- 
cumstanced are said to be in opposition to each other. The interposition of 
a relative and verb vf ill sometimes break the construction ; as, " Pompey 
contended with Cassar, who was the greatest general of his time." Here the 
word gener<(l is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV., or Note 4, 
under Rule VIII. 

The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the 
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted into the 
regular form of the possessive case. We can say, " the reward of virtue," and, 
" virtue's reward;" but, though it is proper to say, "a croAvn of gold," we can- 
not convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, "gold's crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case; as, 
"Every tree is known by its fruit;" "Goodness brings its reward;" "That 
desk is mine." 

The genitive (1) its is often improperly used for 'tis or it is ; as, " Its my 
book ;" instead of, " It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be 
considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per- 
sonal pronoun; as, "This composition is his." "Whose book is that?" 
^^ His." If we used the noun itself, we should say, "This composition is 

(1.) Or possessive. 



SYNTAX. 149 

John's." "Whose book is that?'* " Eliza's." The position will be still more 
evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sentences 
must have a similar construction : " Is it her or his honor that is tarnished ?" 
**It is not hers, but hin." 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, 
the substantive by which it is governed being understood \ as, "■ I called at 
the bookseller's," that is, " at the bookseller's shojjJ' 

" Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is said of 
the nouns religion, und support, in respect to each other? When is the prepo- 
sition of joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case? Give an 
esample. 
" My ancestors virtue is not mine." " A mothers tenderness and a 

(1) fathers care are natures gifts 

" Plis brothers offence will not con- for mans advantage." 

demn him." "A mans manners' frequently in- 

" I will not destroy the city for ten fluence his fortune." 

sake." "Wisdoms precepts' form the 

" iS^evertheless, Asa his heart (2) good mans interest and hap- 

was perfect with the Lord." piness." 

" They slew Varus, he that was " They slew Varus, who was him 
mentioned before." that I mentioned before." 

1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3) case, the apostrophe 
with sis annexed to the last, and understood to the rest; as, "John and 
Eliza's books ;" " This was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But 
when any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the 
sign of the possessive should be annexed to each; as, '^ They are John'r 
as well as Eliza's books;" ''1 had the physician's, the surgeon's, and tht 
apothecary's assistance." 

^^ John's and Eliza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and give thf 
Rule for it ? 

1. 
*^ It was the mens, (4) loomen's, " This measure gained the king 
(5) and children's lot to suffer as well as the people's appro- 

great calamities." bation." 

^^ Peter's, John's, and Andrew's "Kot only the counsel's and at- 
occupation was that of fisher- torney's but the judge's opinion 

men." also, favored his cause." 

2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe re- 
tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending 
in s ; as, *^The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose, 
which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate : "Moses' minister;" 
"Phinehas' wife ;" *•' Festus came into Felix' room:" "These answers were 
made to the witness' questions," But in cases which would give too much of 
the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes 
place even in prose; as, "For righteousness' sake;" " For conscience' sake." 

Is the additional a ever omitted ? Give an example. 

2. 
*'And he cast himself down at "If ye suffer for righteousness' s 

Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye." 

*^3foses rod was turned into a "Ye should be subject for con- 
serpent." science's sake." 
"For Tlerodias sake, his brother ^ 
Philips wife." 

(1.) Rule I. (2.) ''Asa's heart:' (3.) Or possessive. (4.) ''Men'" is liere 

in the possessive case, the apostrophe being understood ; therefore apply Rule I. 
(5.) " J/fM, women ;" or " It was the lot of,'" etc. 

13-^ 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a 
genitive case and the word which usually follows it; as, '' bhe began to extol 
the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding/' It ought to be, 
"the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him.'^ 

" She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understand- 
ing/* Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it? 

3. 
"They very justly condemned the ^'They implicitly obeyed the pro- 
prodigal's, as he was called, tector's, as they called him^ 
senseless and extravagant con- imperious mandates.'' 
duct." (1) 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or of 
any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the other, 
it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case 
should be annexed; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, 
some would say, "I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others, *'at 
Smith the bookseller's;" and perhaps others, '' at Smith's the bookseller's." 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom; and if the 
addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious ; as, 
"I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this sub- 
ject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to the learners, 
we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit 
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or 
near the end of the phrase; as, *^ Whose prerogative is it?" *^It is the King 
of Great Britain's ;" •' That is the Duke of Bridgewater's canal ;" " The Bishop 
of Llandaff's excellent book;" ''The Lord Mayor of London's authority;" 
" The captain of the guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems 
also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar 
situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed ; as, 
" The emperor Leopold's ;" ^' Dionysius the tyrant's ;" '' For David my servant's 
sake;" " Give me John the Baj^tisfs head;" ^' Paul the apostle's advice." But 
when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, and when the 
latter part of the sentence is extended, it appears to be requisite that the sign 
should be applied to the first genitive, and understood to the other; as, "I 
reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor;" ''Whose glory did 
he emulate ? He emulated Csesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In the 
following sentences, it would be very awkward to place the sign either at the 
end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone : " These psalms 
are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We stayed 
a month at Lord Lyttelton's, the ornament of his country, and the friend of 
every virtue." The sign of the genitive case may very properly be understood 
at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a 
common construction in our language; as the learner will see by one or two ex- 
amples : " They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that is, " he did not wish to 
submit," " He said it was their concern, but not his ;" that is, ''not his conceriij" 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we 
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum- 
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable; as, 
*' Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of 
antiquity's ;" "These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the 
Jewish 'people's." It is much better to say, " This is Paul's advice, the Chris- 
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than " This is Paul the Chris- 
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the 
application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition 
would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incbr- 
rect; as, "The emperor's Leopold's;" "King's George's;" "Charles's the 

(1.) '■'■the semseless,''' etc. ''of the prodigal, as he was called.'^ 



SYNTAX. 151 

Second's;" '^ The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's/' 
The rules which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the incon- 
venience of both these modes of expression; and they appear to be simple, 
perspicuous, and consistent v/ith the idiom of the language. 

Which is more agreeable to the English idiom, to say, ^' Smith's the book- 
seller," or, "Smith the bookseller's"? When the words are connected and 
dependent, where is the genitive (1) sign to be placed? 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where 
should the sign of the genitive be placed? What effect is perceived if we 
annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen- 
tence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive sign to 
both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example. 

4. 

" I bought the knives at Johnson's " I will not for David^s thy father's 

(2) the cutler's:' (3) sake." 

"The silk was purchased at Brown's "He took refuge at the governor, 

the mercer's and haberdasher's." the king's representative's." 

"Lord Fevershani the general's "Whose (5) works are these? 

tent." (4) They are Cicero, the most elo- 

" This palace had been the grand quent of men's." 

sultan's Mahomet's." 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; so that we daily 
make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There is 
something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has 
not been taken : " The general, in the army's name, published a declara- 
tion ;" '^The commons' vote;" "The lords' house;" "Unless he is very 
ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, " In 
the name of the army;" "The votes of the commons;" "The house of 
lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two 
English genitives with the same substantive; as, "Whom he acquainted 
with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and of 
the king," would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and 
connected by the preposition of applied to each of them; as, "The severity 
of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of 
expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, " The 
severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We have a striking 
instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence : 
" Gf some of the books of each of these classes of literature, a catalogue will 
be given at the end of the work." 

" In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the 
better ? 

5. 
"The world's government is not " It was necessary to have both the 
left to chance." (6) physician's and the surgeon's 

"She married my son's wife's bro- advice." (9) 

ther." (7) "The extent of the prerogative 

" This is my wife's brother's part- of the King of England is suf- 

ner's house." (8) ficiently ascertained." 

6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition 
of; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un- 
less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- 
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly 

(1.) Or possessive, (2.) " Johnson's si^oj)." Rule I. (3.) '^cutler.''' See 

Note I. under this Rule. (4.) " The tent of lord,'' etc. (5 ) 431. (6.) " The 

government of the worhK''' (7.) "■ th£ hroViei' of my son's wife." (8.) " TfiU 

hoitse belongs to the partner of my wife's brother. " (9.) ^Hhc advice both of.'' 



152 ENGT.ISH GRAMMAR. 

so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed by the 
genitive case; for the expressions, ^' This picture of my friend/' and, ** This 
picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that 
of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed 
in a better manner by saying, ''This picture, belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary 
to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit- 
ted. Except to prevent ambiguitj^, it seems to be allowable only in cases 
which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In 
the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ,•" *'A sentiment of my bro- 
ther's;" more than one subject and one sentiment are supposed to belong 
to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated nor neces- 
sarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not 
be used; as, "This house of the governor is very commodious;" "The 
crown of the king was stolen." " That privilege of the scholar was never 
abused." But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is 
termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of 
it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the 
preposition off Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted? 

6. 
" That picture of the hing^ does " This estate of the corporation's is 

not much resemble (1) him." much encumbered." 

"These pictures of the king (2) " That is the eldest son of the King 
were sent to him from Italy." of England's." 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the 
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, 
the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case: thus, instead 
of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his ser- 
vant so hastily?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, "What is the 
reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily?" just as we say, 
^M¥hat is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?" 
So also we say, "I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;" or, more 
properly, "I remember its being reckoned," etc. The following sentence 
is correct and proper: "Much will depend on the ^wpiVs comj^osing, but 
more on Ms reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much 
will depend on the pnjiil compositig," etc. We also properly say, " This 
will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently;" instead of, " o/ tM \. ^ 
pupil composing frequently." ~ .^^ 

"What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?'*^^ 
Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it? V^ 

7. 

"What (3) can he the cause of the the IloUanders their throwing 

parliament neglecting so im- ofi' the monarchy of Spain, 

portant a business ?" and their withdrawing en- 

" Much depends on this ruh being tirely their allegiance to that 

observed." crown." 

" The time of William making " If we alter the situation of any of 

the experiment, at length ar- the words, we shall presently 

rived." be sensible of the melody suf- 

" It is very probable that this as- fering." 

sembly was called, to clear "Such will ever be the elFect of 

some doubt which the king youth associating with vicious 

had about the lawfulness of companions." Y^ 

(1.) 586. (2.) Or, " These pictures belonging to the king,'" etc. (3.) Rule XV. 



SYNTAX. 153 

RULE VIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XI. 

Actlve4ransitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the Dominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before 
the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active ; 
and it is the order that determines the case in nouns ; as, '^Alexander con- 
quered the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for each of 
tnose cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the 
verb; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb, 
as, "Whojn ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and 
government to be neglected; as in the following instances: ^^ M^ho should I 
esteem more than the wise and good ?" *' By the character of those who you 
choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the 
persons who h© thought true to his interests." *' Who should I see the other 
day but my old friend ?" '' Whosoever the court favors." In all these places, 
it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the 
verbs esteem, choose, thought, etc. " He, who, under all proper circumstances, 
has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" it should be '^him 
who," etc. 

Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- 
nouns. *' He sleeps,^' ^' they muse," etc., are not transitive. They are, therefore, 
not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an action. But when 
this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may carry 
the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a preposition or 
some other word understood; as, " He resided many years [that is, /or or 
during many years] in that street;" "He rode several miles [that is, /or or 
through the space of several miles] on that day ;" *^ He lay an hour [that is, 
during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, " To dream a dream," 
*' To live a virtuous life," " To run a race," *' To walk the horse," " To dance 
the child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, in these 
cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

How is the nominative case usually known in English? How the objec- 
tive ? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns ? In the phrase, "■ He 
resided many years in that street," how do you parse years ? When verbs 
naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called ? 

"They who opulence has made "/S'/?e that is idle and mischievous, 

proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply." 

corrupted, cannot relish the " Who did they send to him on so 

simple pleasures of nature." important an errand ?" 

"You have reason to dread his "That is the friend (4) who you 

wrath, which one day (1) wiU must receive cordially, and who 

destroy ye both." you cannot esteem too highly." 

'* Who have I reason to love so (2) " He invited mybrother and I to see 

much (2) as this friend (3) of and examine (3) his library." 

my youth ?" " He who committed the offence, 

"Fe, who were dead, hath he you should correct, not T, who 

quickened." am innocent." 

" TT/io did they entertain so freely?" "We should fear and obey the 

" The man who he raised from ob- Author of our being, even He 

scurity, is dead." who has power to reward or 

" Ye only have I known of all the punish us forever." 

families of the earth." "They who he had most (5) in- 

" He and they we know, but who jured, he had the greatest rea- 

(4) are you ?" son to love." 

(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) Adverb. (3.) Rule XI. (4.) Rule XV. (5.) 678. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Some writers, however/use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if they 
Were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French 
construction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom 
of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The fol- 
lowing are some instances of this practice : ^' Repenting him of his design/* 
** The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous 
enemies." ^^The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
ject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." ^' Go, fiee 
thee away into the land of Judah." ** I think it by no means a fit and decent 
thing to vie charities," etc. '^ They have spent their whole time and pains to 
agree the sacred with the profane chronology." 

" Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the Note which shows this 
sentence to be incorrect ? 

1. 

" Though he now takes pleasure in before him, the humbler he 

them, he will one day (1) re- grew." 

pent Aim (2) of indulgences so "It will be very difficult to agree 

unwarrantable." his conduct with (3) the prin- 

" The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes." 

ed him to the great example 

2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or in- 
transitive ; as, *' I vaM?>t premise with three circumstances ;" " Those who think 
to ingratiate with him by calumniating me," 

^' I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sentence, 
and give the rule for it ? 

2. 
'^ To ingratiate (4) with some by " I shall premise with two or three 
traducing others, makes a base general observations." 

and despicable mind." 

3. The neuter verb (5) is varied like the active ,• but, having, in some 
degree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive 
form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify 
some sort of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, '^ I am come;" ** I 
was gone;" *' I am grown;" '^ I was fallen." The following examples, how- 
ever, appear to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, 
instead of an active one : *^The rule of our holy religion, from which we are 
infinitely swerved." *' The whole obligation of that law and covenant was 
also ceased." "Whose TwxmhQV vi as noyv amounted to three hundred." '' This 
mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a conspiracy against his 
master." "At the end of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or 
killed." It should be, '^ have swerved," " had ceased," etc. 

" I am come." Why should not this be " I have come" ? 

3. 
" If such maxims and such prac- " The mighty rivals are now at 
tices (6) prevail, what has length agreed." 

(7) become of decency and " The influence of his corrupt ex- 
virtue ?" ample was (8) then entirely 
" I have come, according to the ceased." 

time proposed ; but I have " He was entered into the connec- 
fallen upon an evil hour." tion before the consequences 

were considered." 

(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " repent ofy (8.) " to make agree, with,'''' etc. (4.) " ingratiate 

our Helves.'''' (5.) ^y neuter and active, Mr. Murray here means what in this work are 
styled intransitive and transitive verbs. (6.) Rule XI. (7.) '* w." (8.) *' hadJ" 



SYNTAX. 155 

Rule XY. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pro- 
nouns, signifying the same thing, come together, thej are 
put by apposition in the same case. 

^s^ The exmvi^les loliich follow may he corrected by this Ride or the follow- 
ing Note. 

4. The verb to he, through all its variatioDS, has the same case after it as 
that which next precedes it. ** / am he whom they invited." '• /« may be 
{or, it might have been) he, but it cannot be {or, could not have been) /.'* 
*' It is impossible to be they." " It seems to have been he who conducted him- 
self so wisely." " It appeared to be she that transacted the business." " I 
understood it to be him." ^' I believe it to have been them." " We at first took 
it to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she." " He is not 
the person who it seemed he was.'^ " He is really the person luho he appeared 
to be." '^ She is not now the woman whom they represented her to have been." 
**Whom do you fancy him to be?" By these examples, it appears that this 
substantive verb has no government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as 
a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the construction of 
the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps 
this subject will be more intelligible to the learner, by observing that the 
words in the cases preceding and following the verb to he, may be said to be 
in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, '^ I understood it to be 
him," the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, they refer to the same 
thing, and are in the same case. 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the 
pronoun in a wrong case. ''It might have been him, but there is no proof 
of it." " Though I was blamed, it could not have been me." '^ I saw one 
whom I took to be she." *' She is the person, loho I understood it to have 
been." ^'Who do you think me to be?" '^Whoni do men say that I am ?" 
'* And ichom think ye that I am ?" 

Passive verbs, which signify naming, etc., have the same case before and 
after them ,• as, '^ He was called Caesar ;" " She was named Penelope ;" ^' Homer 
is styled the prince of poets;" "James was created a duke;" " The general 
was saluted emperor;" "The professor was appointed tutor to the prince." 

"I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and give 
the rule for it ? 

4. 
*"Wen may you be afraid; it is (2) who conducted the business; 

him indeed." but I am certain it was not him." 

" I would act the same part, if I " He so much resembled my bro- 
were him, (1) or in his situa- ther, that, at first sight, I took 

tion." it to be he." 

" Search the Scriptures, for in them " After all their professions, is it 
ye think ye have eternal life ; possible to be them ? " 

and they are them which testify " It could not have been her, for 
of me." she always behaves discreet- 

" Be composed : it is me : you have ly." 

no cause for fear." ^' If it was not him, who do you 

" I cannot tell who has befriended imagine it to have been ?" 

me, unless it is him from whom " Who do you think him to be ?" 
I have received many benefits." " Whom do the people say that we 
" I know not whether it were them are ?" 

* When the verb to he is understood, it has the same case before and after it as wlien 
it is expressed ; as, "He seems tlie leader of the party;" '* He shall continue steward;" 
"They appointed me executor;" "I supposed him a man of learning ;" — that is, ''He 
seems to he the leader of the party," etc. Nouns in apposition are in the same case ; 
as, " We named the man Pompey ;" "They may term Charles a visionary, but they can- 
not call him a deceiver ;"" Hortensius died a martyr ;" "The gentle Sidney lived the 
shepherd's friend." 

(1.) Rule XV. (2.) 'Hhey were thcpersans" 



156 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

5. The auxiliary let gov^erns the objective case; as, ''Let him beware,*" 
"Let us judge candidly;" *' Let them not presume;'^ ''Lee George study his 
lesson." 

" Let us judge candidly." In what case is us ? What is the rule ? 

5. 
"Whatever (1) others do, let (2) ^'Let them and we unite to oppose 
thou and /act wisely.'^ this growing (3) evil." 

RULE XII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs^ participles^ 
adjectives J nouns^ and pronouns. 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some- 
times properly omitted ; as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of, " to say it." 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the infini- 
tive mood, without the sign to, are bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, /eel, and 
also let, not used as an auxiliary; and perhaps a few others; as, "I bade 
him do it;" "Ye dare not do it;" " I saw him do it;" " 1 heard him say itj" 
"Thou lettest him go." 

Will you name the verbs which have commonly other words in the infini- 
tive mood after them, without the sign to f 

'^It is better (4) live on a lit- " I need not ^o solicit him to do a 
tie, (5) than outlive a good kind action.'^ 

deal." " I dare not to proceed so hastily, 

" You ought not walk too hastily." lest I should give offence." 

" I wish him not wrestle with his '^ I have seen some young persons 
happiness." to conduct themselves very dis- 

ci eetly." 

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, 
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper : 
"I have observed some satirists to use," etc. "To see so many to make 
so little conscience of so great a sin." " It cannot but be a delightful spec- 
tacle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temp- 
tations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of 
his age, that is courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the 
bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly 
unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places: " I am 
not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." " Grammarians have 
denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." " That all our doings may 
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and par- 
ticiples ; as, " He is eager to learn;" " She is worthy to be loved;" " They 
have a desire to improve ;" " Endeavoring to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing 
the action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of 
an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the oflice of a substantive in 
different cases: — in the nominative; as, "To ploy is pleasant:" — in the 
objective; as, " Boj^s love to play;" "For to ivill is present with me, but 
to perform that which is good, I find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently of the 
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the 
potential mood ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" " To begin 
with the first ;"" " To conclude ;" — that is, " That I may confess," etc. 

(1.) Rule VIII. (i.) Imp. Rule VI. (3.) 559. (i) '• to liver Rule XII. (5.) Noun. 



SYNTAX. 157 

" I have observed some satirists to use," etc. AYhat is incorrect in this 
sentence ? 

In the expression, **' He is eager to learn/' will you parse to learn f What 
is the rule? (1) " To play is pleasant." Will you parse to play, and give a 
rule for it? (1) '^ To confess the truth, I was in fault." How is to confess 
parsed ? What is the rule for it ? (2) 

1. 

"It is a great support to virtue, '' To see (6) young persons who are 
when we see a good mind to courted by health and pleasure, 
maintain (3) its patience and to resist all the allurements 
tranquillity, under injuries and of vice, and to steadily pursue 
affliction, and to cordially for- virtue and knowledge, is cheer- 
give its oppressors." ing and delightful to every 

" It is the difference of their con- good mind." 

duct, which makes us to ap- " They acted with so much reserve, 

prove the one, and to reject the that some persons doubted them 

other." to be sincere J^ {7 ) 

" We should not be like many per- " And the multitude wondered, 

sons, to (4) depreciate the vir- when they savf the lame to walk, 

tues we (5) do not possess." and the blind to see." (8) 

RULE XXVI. 

Corresponding %Yith Murray's Grammar, 
EULE XIII. 

Zn the use of icords and j^hrases which^ in jpoint of time^ 
relate to each other ^ a due regard to that relation should 
be observed. Instead of saying^ " The Lord hath given^ 
and the Lord, hath taken away," we should say^ 
"- The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." 
Instead of '' I remember the family more than twenty 
years," it should be^ "- 1 have remembered the family 
more than twenty years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the use of the moods and tenses 
of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and con- 
sistent. The best rule that can be given is this very general one — ^' To 
observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use 
to give a few examples of irregular construction. " The last week I in- 
tended to have written," is a very common phrase; the infinitive being in 
the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong; 
for how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then 
present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back 
that time and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week 
I intended to icrite." The following sentences are also erroneous : '^ I 
cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have been, 
as it certainly was their interest, to have interpoHed their good offices. '^ 
^' There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them to have 
lost no time.*^ " Historical painters would have found it difficult to have in- 
vented such a species of beings." They ought to be, to interpose, to lose, 
to invent, "On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty 
wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, 
"because he icould know,'* or, rather, '^ being desirous to know." *' The 

(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (3.) For to maintain read maintain. 

<4.) "if/io." (5) ''theyr (6.) Note XIII. (7.) '' their sincerity.'* 

\B ) '* persons who had been lame^ walking; and those who had been hiind, seeing.'' 

14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sis^ht." "If by any 
means I might attain unto the resurrection of the deacl/^ May, in both 
places, would have been better. "From his biblical knowledge, he appears 
to study the Scriptures with great attention;'^ ''to have stiidied," etc. "1 
feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at the city;" "should lose 
it." " I had rather walk f it should be, '"' I would rather walk/* " It would 
have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it;" it should be, "if I 
could have performed it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the 
subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses sometimes carry with 
them a future signification ; and that the auxiliaries shoidd and would are 
used to express the present or future, as well as the past. 

" I intended to have written.*' Will you point out the incorrectness of 
this sentence, and give a rule for it ? 

^'Tlie next new year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities 

be (1) at school three years." which the imprudence, weak- 

''And he that was dead (2) sat up, ness, or necessities of princes 

and began to speak.'^ <^ifford it, to extend its author- 

"I should be obliged to him, if ity.'^ 

he will gratify me in that par- " Fierce as he moved, his silver 
ticular." shafts resound." 

"And the multitude wondered, "They maintained that Scripture 
when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind 

speak, the maimed to be whole, rise from one head." 

the lame walk, and the blind " John will earn his wages when 
seeing." (3) his service is completed." 

"I have compassion on the mul- "Ye will not come unto me that 
titude, because they continue ye might have life." 

with me now three days." "Be that as it will, he cannot jus- 

" In the treasury belonging to the tify his conduct." 

cathedral in this city is pre- "I have been at London a year, 
served (4) with the greatest and seen the king last sum- 

veneration, for upwards of six mer." 

hundred years, a dish which " After we visited London, we re- 
they pretend to be made of turned, content and thankful, 

emerald." to our retired and peaceful 

"The court of Kome gladly laid habitation." 

1. It is proper further to observe that verbs of the infinitive mood in the 
following form — to write, to he writing, and to be written — always denote 
something contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent to 
it; but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been 
writing, to have written, and to have been written — they always denote some- 
thing antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark will, in 
most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of these tenses. 
The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: "I found 
him better than I expected to find him.'' "Expected to have found him," 
is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive 
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
an error in this expression — " It is long since I commanded him to have done 
it;" yet, "expected to have found," is no better. It is as clear that the 
finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be 
posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect 
tense of the infinitive mood : " It would have afforded me great pleasure, as 
often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence." 

(1.) "shall havp been.^' (2.) " had been dearl." (3.) See the last example imdei 

the preceding Rule. (4.) " a dish has been preserved." 



SYNTAX. 159 

As the messaga, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not 
contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote that 
antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and the 
pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would 
with equal propriety have been put in the present of the infinitive; as, " It 
would have afforded me great pleasure to be the messenger of such intelli- 
gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these 
-^ords — " If I had been the messenger;" in the latter instance, to this expres- 
sion — *' Being the messenger." 

It is proper to inform the learner that, in order to express past time 
with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always be 
nsed ; as, ^' He ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is the 
only possible way to distinguish the past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the 
sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp- 
bell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain that 
the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the 
verb which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted 
in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances 
of a similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in which 
the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it wovild be proper and 
allowable. We may say, '^ From a conversation I once had with him, he 
appeared to have studied Homer with great care and judgment." It would 
be proper also to say, ** From his conversation, he appears to have studied 
Homer with great care and judgment;" "That unhappy man is supposed to 
have died by violence." These examples are not only consistent with our 
rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the governing verb 
only, that marks what is called the absolute time; the tense of the verb gov- 
erned marks solely its relative time with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no 
tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, and future, is inconsistent 
with just grammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with 
verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their 
own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, 
or future, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and 
its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, 
after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing 
signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with the 
thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety 
that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time 
from which they are computed is of no consequence, since present, past, and 
future are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking that, 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the governing 
verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give the ex- 
pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, ^^ I wish to have written 
to him sooner," "I then wished to have written to him sooner," *' He will one 
day wish to have written sooner;" it would be more perspicuous and forcible, 
as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, "I wish that 
I had written to him sooner," "I then wished that I had written to him 
sooner," " He will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the just- 
ness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous occasions 
for the use of the past infinitive; as we may perceive by a few examples: 
*' It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to have found him 
wise and virtuous." " To have deferred his repentance longer, would have 
disqualified him for repenting at all." "They will then see, that to have 
faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation." 

"I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and give 
a rule for it? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time 
with the defective verb ought '^ Give an example. Is it proper ever to use 
"ihe perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb ? Give an example. 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"I purpose to go to London in a 
few months, and after I shall 
finish (1) my business there, 
to proceed (2) to America." 

*^ These prosecutions of V/illiam 
seem to be the most iniquitous 
measures pursued by the court 
daring the time that the use of 
parliaments was suspended." 

" From the little conversation 1 had 
with him, he appeared to have 
been a man of letters." 

" I always intended to have reward- 
ed my son according to his 
merit." 

" It would, on reflection, have given 
me great satisfaction, to relieve 
him from that distressing situ- 
ation." 

"It required so much care, that I 
thought I should have lost it 
before I reached home." 

'*We have done no more than it^ 
was our duty to have done." 

" He would have assisted one of his 
friends, if he could do it with- 
out injuring the other; but as 
that could not have been done, 
he avoided all interference." 

"3Iust it not be expected that he 
would have defended an au- 
thority which liad been so 



long exercised without contro- 
versy?" (3) 

"These enemies of Christianity 
were confounded, whilst they 
were expecting to have found 
an opportunity to have betrayed 
its author." 

"His sea-sickness was so great, 
that I often feared he would 
have died before our arrival." 

" If these persons had intended to 
deceive, they would have taken 
care to have avoided what would 
expose them to the objections 
of their opponents." 

"It was a pleasure to have received 
his approbation of my labors, 
for which I cordially thanked 
him." 

"It would have afforded me still 
greater pleasure, to receive his 
approbation at an earlier pe- 
riod ; but to receive (4) it at all, 
reflected credit upon me." 

"To be censured by him, would 
soon have proved an insuper- 
able discouragement." 

"Him portioned maids, appren- 
ticed orphans blest. 

The young who labor, and the old 
who restJ^ 

" The doctor, in his lecture, said that 
fever always produced thirst." 



RULE XIV. 

CoiTesponding with Murra^^'s Grammarj 
KULE XIY. 



Active participles^ from active-transitive verbs^ govern the 
objective case. 



^ Esteeming (5) theirselves 
they became foois.'^ 



le, in some degree, they as enemies 

to me ; and he as a suspicious 
"Suspecting not only ye^ but they friend." 

also, I was studious to avoid all "From having exposed (7) hisself 
intercourse." too freely, in different climates, 

" I could not avoid considering, (6) he entirely lost his health." 

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti- 
eiple, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and must 
have the preposition o/ after it; as, ^' These are the rules of grammar, by the 
observing of which you may avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to 



(1.) '^ shall have finish edy (2.) Rule IX. (3.) '''■Might \t not have hcen^^^ etc, 

C4.) ^^ to Zi^£)e received." Note XIIL (5.) Rulo XIIL {6J B.u\e VIIL (7.) 56i. 



Sk'NTAX. 161 

say, " by the observing which/' nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, 
without either article or preposition, would be right; as, "by observing 
which." The article a or an has the same effect; as, " This was a betraying 
of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as 
plain a principle as any on which it is founded : namely, that a word which 
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition o/ after it, must be a 
noun; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not 
to have the regimen of a verb. It is the jDarticipial termination of this sort 
of words, that is opt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were of 
an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was 
sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, "by the 
preaching of repentance," or, "by preaching repentance." "By the <iontin- 
ual mortifying our corrupt affections;" it should be, "by the continual mor- 
tifying of," or, "by continually mortifying our corrupt aflfeetions." "They 
laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good of it;" 
"towards advancing and promoting the good." "' It is aw overvaluing our- 
selves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities;" "it 
is overvaluing ourselves," or, "a« overvaluing o/ ourselves," "Keeping of 
one day in seven," etc.; it ought to be, " the keeping of one. day," or, " keep- 
ing one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos- 
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same 
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and prep- 
osition. "He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philoso- 
pher," is capable of a different sense from, " He expressed the pleasure he had 
in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore^ we wish, for the sake of har- 
mony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we 
should previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the senti- 
ments they convey. 

"By the observing of which." Will you iparse observing f Rule for it? 
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety? Would it be 
proper to omit one of them only ? 

1. 

" By observing of truth, you will to be the most advantageously 

command esteem." situated for gaining of wisdom. 

" He prepared them for this event, Poverty turns our thoughts too 

by the sending to them proper much upon the supplying our 

information." wants ; and riches upon the 

"A person may be great or rich enjoying our superfluities." 

by chance ; but cannot be wise ^' Pliny, speaking of Cato the Cen- 

or good without the taking sor's disapproving the (Grecian 

pains for it." orators^ expressed himself thus." 

" Nothing could have made her " Propriety of pronunciation is the 

so unhappy, as the marrying giving to every word that sound, 

a man who possessed such which the most polite usage of 

principles." the language appropriates to it." 

" The changing times and seasons, " The not attending (1) to this rule, 

the removing and setting up is the cause (2) of a very com- 

kings, belong to Providence mon error." 

alone." " This was in fact a converting the 

'^ The middle station of life seems deposit to his own use." 

2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of 
the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and parti- 
ciple, when they are similarly associated: as, " Much depends on their observr 



(1.) Rule VI. (2.) Rdle XV. 

14- L 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their negJ ectivg of \t f^ in« 
stead of ^^ their ohseo-ving the rule, and their neylectiiiy it." We shall perceive 
this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for ihe pronoun ; as, '^ Much depends 
upon Tyro's observing oy'the rule," etc. But, as this construction sounds 
rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in the 
following, or some other form : "Much depends on the ride's being observed ; 
and error will be the eonsequence o^ its being neglected ;" or, "on observing 
the rule;" and, ^* of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to several 
other modes of expression to be found in this work ; which, though they are 
contended for as strictly correct, are not always the most eligible, on account 
of their unpleasant sound. 

Vv^e sometimes meet with expressions like the following : '^ In forming of 
his sentences, he was very exa^t ;" ^'Frovi colling of -d tunes, he proceeded to 
blows." But this is incorrect language; for prepositions do not, like articles 
and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive ; 
as we have shown above in the phrase, *■ by observing which." And yet the 
participle, with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in 
the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or under- 
stood ; as, " 'By promising much, and performing but little, we become despica- 
ble ;" '' He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." 

"Much depends on their observing of the rule." Would this sentence be 
correct if the preposition o/ were omitted ? Will you repeat the Note? 

2. 
" There will be no danger of iheir the directions that we lost our 

(1) spoiling their faces, or of way.*' 

their gaining converts." '^ In tracing of his history, we dis- 

*^ For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of 

he is indebted to his friend's imitation." 

care." " By reading of books written by 

" It was from our misunderstanding the best authors, his mind be- 

came highly improved." 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different 
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It 
is frequently said, ^' He begun," for "he began ;" " He run," for "he ran ;" 
"He drunk," for "he drank;" the participle being here used instead of the 
imperfect tense ; and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the 
participle; as, " I had wrote," for " I had written ;" " I was chose," for " I 
was chosen ;" "I have eat," for "I have eaten." "His words were interwove 
with sighs;" "were interwoven." "He would have spoke;" '^spoken." " He 
hath bore witness to his faithful servants :" " borne." " By this means he 
overrun his guide ;" '^overran." " The sun has rose;" ''risen." "His con- 
stitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook by 
suoh causes;" ''shaken," in both places. " They were verses wrote on glass;" 
*' written." " Philosophers have often mistook the source of true happiness ;'' 
it ought to be, "mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed, 
into t ; as, "In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school;'* 
"She was much distrest;" they ought to be, " snrjyassed," "distressed." 

Is it correct to say, " He begun"? What is wrong in the expression ? Will you 
repeat Note 3 ? Can the participial ending ed be contracted to t with propriety? 

o. 
*' By too eager pursuit, he rnn a *'He was greatly heated, and drunk 
great risk of being disap- with avidity." 

pointed." (2) *' Though his conduct was excep- 

" He had not long enjoyed repose, tionable, yet he dared not com- 

before he begun to be weary mit so great an offence as that 

of having nothing to do." which was proposed to him." 

(1.) Omit " their:' (2.) Pres. pass. part, used as a noun.— Rule X, 



SYNTAX. 



163 



"A second deluge learning thus 

o'errim, 
And the monks finished what the 

Goths begun." 
"If some events had not fell out 

very unexpectedly, I should 

have been present." 
" He would have went with us, had 

he been invited." 
" He returned the goods which he 

had stole, and made all the 

reparation in his power." 
" They have chose the part of honor 

and virtue." 
** His vices have Aveakened his 

mind, and broke his health." 
*' He had mistook his true interest, 

and found himself foi-sook by 

his former adherents." 
"The bread that has been eat is 

soon forgot." 
"No contentions have arose amongst 

them since their reconciliation." 
" The cloth had no seam, but was 

wove throughout." 
" The French language is spoke in 

every state in Europe." 



' His resolution was too strong 
to be shook by slight opposi- 
tion." 

• He was not much restrained after- 
wards, having took improper 
liberties at first." 

'* He has not yet wore off the rough 
manners which he brought 
with him." 

^You who have forsook your 
friends, are entitled to no con- 
fidence." 

'^They who have bore a part in 
the labor, shall share the re- 
wards." 

'^When the rules have been wan- 
tonly broke, there can be no 
plea for favor." 

'He writes as the best authors 
would have wrote, had they 
writ on the same subject." 

*He lieapt up great riches, but 
past his time miserably." 

'He talkt and stampt with such 
vehemence, that he was sus* 
pected to be insane." 



RULE XXVII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XV. 

Adverbs^ though they have no government of case^ tense ^ etc.^ 
require an appropriate situation in the sentence^ viz, ^ for 
the most part^ before adjectives ^ after verbs active or neuter^ 
and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb; as, 
/'He mside 2i very sensible discourse; he spoke unaf- 
fectedly and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the 
whole assembly.'^ 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
the rule. ^' He must not expect to find study agreeable always;'' ''always 
agreeable." "We always find them ready when we want them;" "we find 
them always ready," etc. "Dissertations on the prophecies which have re- 
markably been fulfilled;" "which have been remarkably." "Instead of 
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better;" "Instead of looking 
down contemptuously, etc., we should thankfully look »/?," etc. " If thou art 
blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it;" ''naturally 
blessed," etc., "exercise it continually." 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries; and sometimes 
after them both; as in the following examples: "Vice always creeps by de- 
grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we 
are at last completely bound." " He encouraged tho English barons to carry 
their opposition /arMer/" " They compelled him to declare that he would 
abjure the realm /oreyer/" instead of, "to carry farther their opposition," 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and "to abjure forever the realm." "He has generally been reckoned an 
honest man :" " The book may always be had at such a place;'' in preference 
to " has been generally," and "may be always." " These rules will be clearly 
understood, after they have been diligently studied/' is preferable to " These 
rules Vfi\\'clea7-ly be understood^ after they have diligently been studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples it appears that no exact and 
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. 
The general rule may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and per- 
spicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative 
noun; as, " There is a person at the door;" " There are some thieves in the 
house;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, "A person is 
at the door;"' " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use 
of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence; as, " There was a 
man sent from God, whose name was John." When it is applied in its 
strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case; as, " The 
%ian stands there." 

What word is misplaced in the sentence, " He must not expect to find 
study agreeable always"? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule 
for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with re- 
spect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? 

" He was pleasing not often, (1) be- "So well educated a boy gives 

cause he was vain." great hopes to his friends." 

" William nobly acted, though he " Not only he found her employ- 
was unsuccessful." ed, but pleased and tranquil 

" We may happily live, though our also." 

possessions are small." " We always should prefer our duty 

"From whence (2) we may date to our pleasure." 

likewise the period of this '^ It is impossible continually to be 

event." at work." 

" It cannot be impertinent or ri- " The heavenly bodies are in mo- 

diculous, therefore, to remon- tion perpetually." 

strate." " Having not known, or having not 

" He offered an apology, which not considered, the measures pro- 
being admitted, he became sub- posed, he failed of success." 
missive." " My opinion was given on rather 

"These things should be never a (5) cursory perusal of the 

separated." book." 

"Unless he have more government "It is too common with mankind, 

of himself, he will be always to be engrossed and overcome 

discontented." totally, by present events." 

^^ Never (3) sovereign was (4) so "When the Romans were pressed 

much beloved by the people." by a foreign enemy, the women 

" He was determined to invite back contributed all their rings and 

the king, and to call together jewels voluntarily to assist the 

his friends." government." 

1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb ; as, " I never was there ;" 
" He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it is 
placed indifferently either before or after this adverb ; as, " He was never 
seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to be im- 
properly used in the following passages: "Ask me never so much dowry 
and gift." " If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so 
wisely." The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. 

(l.) ''not often jiJeanng:' (2.) 589. (3.) " iVo." (4.) " e?;er so." 

(6.) *' a ratfee?'."— Rule- iX. 



SYXTAX. 165 

How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb? Give 
an example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used 
instead of ever. 

1. 
'^They could not persuade liim, "If some persons' opportunities 
though they were never so elo- were never so favorable, they 

quent." would be indolent in improving 

them/' 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often 
used instead of the relative pronoun and a preposition. ** They framed a 
protestation, lohere they repeated all their former claims ;'* i. e., ^' in which 
they repeated.^' "The king was still determined to run forwards, in the 
same course where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad- 
vanced ;" i. e., " in which he was.^' But it would be better to avoid this mode 
of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and lohence, imply a preposition; for they sig- 
nify "from this place," "from that place/* "from what place.'* It seems, 
therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, 
because it is superfluous; as, " This is the Leviathan, from whence the wits 
of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophesies 
from hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the 
preposition /rom is so often used in construction with them, that the omission 
of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig- 
nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither ; as, "He came 
here hastily f " They rode there with speed." They should be, " He came 
hither;" ** They rode thither/' etc. 

" They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their former claims." 
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2 ? 

2. 

"He drew up a petition, ^y^ere he "George is active; he walked 

too freely represented his own there in less than an hour." 

merits.'' (1) 

" His follies had reduced him to a " Where are you all going in such 

situation where he had much to haste ?" 

fear, and nothing to hope." ^ " Whither have they been since 

" It is reported that the prince will they left the city ?" 

come here to-morrow." 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : " In 
. 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun to 

increase in those countries as a religious order;" i.e., " siuoe lohich tione." 
" A little while, and I shall not see you ;" i. e., " a short time." " It is worth 
their while;" i. e., "it deserves their time and pains." But this use of the 
word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
phrase, "To do a thing anyhow;" i. e., " in any manner;" or " soin eh oio ;" 
i.e., "in some manner." "Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are 
under the influence of prejudice." 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 

3. 
"Charles left the seminary too " Nothing is better worth the while 
early, since when he has made (3) of young persons, than the 

yery little improvement." acquisition of knowledge and 

(2) virtue." 

(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " and from that time he," etc. ; or, " and has since made,'^ 

etc. (3.) "i/ie time and attention of," etc. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMA B. ■ 

RULE XIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVL 

Two negatives^ in the same simple sentence, are equivalent 
to an affirmative ; as^ " 'Nor did they not perceive 
him ;" i, e., '' They did perceive him/' 

It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative than by two 
separate negatives, as in the former sentence; but when one of the negatives 
is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form a. 
pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one; as 
in the following instances : " 1 never did repent of doing good, nor shall not 
now;'' "no/- shall I now." ''Never no imitator grew up to his author;'' 
^^ never did any," etc. *' I cannot by no means allow him what his argument 
must prove;'' 4' I cannot by any means," etc.; or, '' 7 can hy no means." 
" Nor let no comforter approach me ;" ''nor let o»/?/ comforter," etc. "Nor 
is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we com- 
monly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes;" it should be " a«y 
more." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in 
republics;" "Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Kaphael, 
was born in a republic." 

Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two separate 
negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives? 

" Neither riches, nor honors, nor no " Do not interrupt me yourselves, 

such perishing goods, can sat- nor let no one disturb my re- 

isfy the desires of an immortal tirement." 

spirit/' *^ These people do not judge wise- 

*' Be honest, nor take no shape nor ly, nor take no proper measure 

semblance of disguise.' ' to effect their purpose." 

" We need not, nor (1 ) do not, con- " The measure is so exceptionable, 

fine his operations to narrow that we cannot by no means 

limits." permit it." 

" I am resolved not to comply with " I have received no information 

the proposal, neither at present, on the subject, neither from 

nor at any other time." him nor from his friend." 

*^ There cannot be nothing m^ore " Precept nor discipline is not so 

insignificant than vanity." forcible as example." 

"Nothing never affected her so "The king nor the queen was 

much as this misconduct of not all deceived in the busi- 

her child." ness." 

RULE X. 

Correspondiug with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XYIL 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of 
the objective: ''Who servest thou under?" ^MVho do you speak to ?" '* Y/e 
are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." ^' Who dost thou ask 
for?" ^^ Associate not with those who none can speak well of." In all these 
places, it ought to be ^' whom." 

The prepositions to and/o?* are often understood, chiefly before the pro- 
nouns ; as, '' Give me the book:" "Get me some paper,*" that is, •' <o me,'* 

(1.) ''-and do." 



SYNTAX. 167 

"/or me." '^ Wo is me;" i. e., "to me." " He was banished England;" i. e., 
"from England." 

^' Who do you speak to?" Will you correct this sentence, and explain why 
it is wrong? '• Give me the book." What is understood in this sentence? 

" We are all accountable creatures, to ? Who does he offer such 

eacii for hisself^ language to ?" 

" Tiiey willingly, and of theirselveSj ^' It was not he that they were so 
endeavored to make up the dif- angry with.'^ 

ference." ^' What concord can subsist between 

" He laid the suspicion upon some- those who commit crimes, and 

body, I know not who, in the they (2) who abhor them ?" 

company." " The person who I travelled vrith, 

"I hope it is not 1 who (1) he is has sold the horse which he 

displeased with." rode on during our journey." 

" To poor we, there is not much " It is not I he is engaged with." 
hope remaining." ^' Who did he receive that intelli- 

" Does that boy know who he speaks gence from ?" 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs ; 
as, "Whom wilt thoa give it to?" instead of, "To whom wilt thou give it?" 
" He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;" " The world is too polite 
to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first 
that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly 
inclined; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the 
familiar style in writing ; but the placing of the preposition before the relative 
is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with 
the solemn and elevated style. 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? 

^- . . 

" To have no one whom we heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly 

wish well to, and whom we are indebted to.'* 

warmly concerned fur, is a de- 
plorable state " 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect 
different prepositions with the same noun ; as, " To suppose the zodiac and 
planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether ir 
the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally 
be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of 
expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admitted. 

Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs ? 
When may it be admitted ? 

"On these occasions, the pronoun is " They were refused entrance into, 
governed by, (3) and conse- and forcibly driven from, the 

quently agrees with, the pre- house." 

ceding word." 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different 
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus, we 
say, " To converse with a person upon a subject, in a house," etc. We also say, 
'* We are disappointed o/a thing," when we cannot get it, *' and disappointed in 
it," when we have it and find it does not answer our expectations. But two dif- 
ferent prepositions must be improper in the same constructions and in the same 
sentence ; as, " The combat between thirty French against twenty English."' 

In some cases, it is difficult to say to which of two prepositions the prefer- 
ence is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom, has not decided 
in favor of either of them. We say, ^' Ex])ert at," and " Expert in a thing ;" 
" Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;" " Expert in deception." 

(1.) " withwltom." {2.) " i/w.se." (3.) "by the preceding word, txnd consequently agrees with iW* 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When prepositions are subjoined to nonns, they are generally the same 
that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived 5 as, ^^ A 
compliance with," '^ to comply with;" ^' A disposition to tyranny,'' '' disposed 
to tyrannize/' 

Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a 
different preposition ? 

3. 
"We are often disappointed of company, but have alwavs 

things which, before possession, hitherto been disappointed in 

promised much enjoyment." that pleasure/' 

"I have frequently desired their 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im- 
portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety 
in the application of this part of speech. 

1st. With respect to the preposition of. "He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court;" ^' on going,'' etc. "He was totally dependent of the Papal 
crown '" " on the Papal/' etc. " To call of a person," and " to wait of him ;" 
" on a person," etc. " He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens ;" 
"?n recommending," etc. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, 
Sifter worthy/ ; as, "It is worthy observation," or, "of observation." But it 
would have been better omitted in the following sentences: "The emulation, 
who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, but of who 
should obtain the most lucrative command." " The rain hath been falling of 
a long time,'" "falling a long time." " It is situation chiefly which decides 
of the fortune and characters of men ;" "' decides the fortune," or, ''concerning 
the fortune." " He found the greatest diflBculty of writing ;" " in writing." " It 
might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A taste 0/ a thing im- 
plies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste /or it implies only a capacity for enjoy- 
ment. " This had a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard after 
his father's commands ;" " share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," etc. 

2d. With respect to the prepositions to and/or. " You have bestowed your 
favors to the most deserving persons;" " vpon the most deserving," etc. " He 
accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch ;" " of having betrayed." " His 
abhorrence to that superstitious figure;" "o/that,'^ etc. "A great change to 
the better;" "/or the better." "Your prejudice to my cause;" "against." 
'' The English were very different people then to what they are at present:" 
^' from what," etc. "In compliance to the declaration;" ''with" etc. " It is 
more than they thought for;" " thought of." " There is no need for it ;" " of 
it." For is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows for." "• No 
discouragement for the authors to proceed ;" " to the authors," etc. " It was 
perfectly in compliance to some persons ;" " with." " The wisest princes need 
not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their suf- 
ficiency, to rely upon counsel;" "diminution of," and " derogation yrow." 

3d. With respect to the prepositions loith and upon. " Keconciling himself 
with the king." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance with 
each other, frequently differ the most." " That such rejection should be con- 
sonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," etc. " The history 
of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it 
should be "to," instead of "with." " It is a use that, perhaps, I should not 
have thought on ;" " thought of." " A greater quantity may be taken from the 
heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it;" "in it." " Intrusted 
to persoBs on whom the parliament could confide;" "in whom." "He was 
made much on at Argos;" "much of." "If policy can prevail upon force ;" 
"over force. '^ " I do likewise dissent with the examiner ;" "from." 

4th. With respect to the prepositions in, from, etc. " They should be in- 
formed in some parts of his character;" " about, '^ or "concerning." "Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance;" "wuJer." "That variety of 
factions into which we are still engaged;" "in which." "To restore myself 
into the favor;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated 



SYNTAX. 



169 



could not forbear from appointing the pope," etc. " A strict observance after 
times and fashions;" *'o/* times." " The character which we may now value 
ourselves by drawing;" ^' upon drawing." "Neither of them shall make me 
swerve out of the path ;" ^^ from the path." "' Ye blind guides, which strain 
at a gnat, and swallow a camel;" it ought to be, ^'' which strain out a gnat." 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot be 
properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singular 
number ; as, " Which is found among every species of liberty," " The opinion 
seems to gain ground among every body." 

" He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this sen- 
tence ? " You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons." 
How should this sentence be altered ? 

" Reconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in this sen- 
^nce ? " They should be informed in some parts of his character." Will you 
correct this sentence ? 

4. 
*' She finds a difficulty of fixing her 



mind." 
" Her sobriety is no derogation to 

her understanding.'^ 
^^ There was no water, and he died 

for (1) thirst." 
" We can fully confide on (2) none 

but the truly good." 
^^ I have no occasion of his services." 
'^ Many have profited from good 

advice." 
" Many ridiculous practices have 

been brought in vogue." 
" The error was occasioned by com- 
pliance to earnest entreaty." 
*' This is a principle in unison to 

our nature." 
^^We should entertain no prejudices 

to simple and rustic persons." 
^^ They are at present resolved of 

doing their duty." 
*'That boy is known under the 

name of the idler." 
"Though conformable with cus- 
tom, it is not warrantable." 
*^ This remark is founded in truth." 
"His parents think on him and 

his improvements with pleas- 
ure and hope." 
" His excuse was admitted ofhy (3) 

his master." 
" What went ye out for to see ?" 
"There appears to have been a 

million men brought into the 

field." 
" His present was accepted of by 

his friends." 
"More than a thousand of men 

were destroyed." 
'*' It is my request that he will he 

(l.)"o/." (2.) "in/' 



particular in speaking to the 
following points." 

"The Saxons reduced the greater 
part of Britain to their own 
power." 

" He lives opposite the royal ex- 
change." 

"Their house is situated to the 
northeast side of the road." 

"The performance was approved 
of by all who understood it." 

" Pie was accused with having 
acted unfairly." 

" She has an abhorrence to all de- 
ceitful conduct." 

" They were some distance (4) from 
home, when the accident hap- 
pened." 

" His deportment was adapted for 
conciliating regard." 

"My father writes me very fre- 
quently." 

" Their conduct was agreeable with 
their profession." 

"We w^ent leisurely above stairs, 
and came hastily below. We 
shall write up stairs this fore- 
noon, and down stall's in the 
afternoon." 

" The politeness of the w^orld has 
the same resemblance with 
benevolence that the shadow 
has with its substance." 

"He had a taste of such studies^ 
and pursued them earnestly." 

" When we have had a true taste for 
the pleasures of virtue, we can 
haveno relish for thoseof vice.'^ 

"Civility makes its way among 
every kind of persons." 

(3.) " hy." (4.) E. XXII. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow 
verbs nud participles of motion ; as. *' I went to London -/l "■ I am going ta 
town." But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to he; 
as, " I have been at London ;" " I was at the place appointed ,•" ^' I shall be at 
Paris." We likewise say, " He touched, arrived at any place." The prepo- 
sition \n is set before the names of countries, cities, and large towns ,• as, ^' He 
^ives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before those of villages, 
single houses, or cities which are in distant countries, at is used; as, ^' He 
lives at Hackney;" ^' He resides at Montpellier." 

It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, 
whether the preposition o/ be placed between the two parts of it, or before 
them both. We may say, *' They were jealous of one another ;" or, ** They 
were jealous one of another;'* but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequentl}'- used as prepositions ; as, excepting, respecting^ 
touching, concerning, according. *^ They were all in fault except or €xcep)ting 
him." 

How is the preposition to used with nouns of place? Give an example. 
A.re participles ever used as prepositions ? Give an example. 

5. 
'' I have been to London, after '* They have just landed in Hull, 
having resided a year at and are going for Liverpool. 

France ; and I now live at They intend to reside some 

Islington." time in Ireland.'^ 

RULE XI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVIII. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and 
tense^ and nouns or jwonouns of the same case. 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its 
utility. '^ If be prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will 
succeed;" *Mf he jyrefers.'' ^^ To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is in- 
human ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want 
compassion." ^* The parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued 
the same day ;" " and loas prorogued." ^' His wealth and him bid adieu to each 
other ;" " and ^e." " He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;" 
"comrade and me." ^' My sister and her were on good terms ;" *' and she." 
*' We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and are searching 
after those which are out of our reach ;" it ought to be '^ and search after." 

" His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ? 

" Professing regard, and to act " To be moderate in our views, and 

( 1 ) differently, discover a base proceeding temperately in the 

mind." pursuit of them, is the best way 

" Did he not tell me his fault, and to ensure success." 

entreated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some 

" My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none 

grammarians." between him and she." 

" If he understand the subject, and " By forming themselves on fantas- 

attends to it industriously, he tic models, and ready toviev/ith 

can scarcely fail of success." one another in the reigning fol- 

" Youandusenjoymany privileges." lies, the young begin with being 

"She and him are very unhappily ridiculous, and end with being 

connected." vicious and immoral." 
1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods 

and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if 

(1.) '* acting," or, " To profess regard, and to act,' etc. 



SYNTAX. 171 

not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done, under 
the construction to which the rule refers. Wc may say, " He lives temperately, 
and he should live tem})crateiy ;" ''He Jiinj/ return, but he icill not continue ;" 
''She w!(s proud, though she is now humble:" but it is obvious that, in such 
cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by this means, the 
latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on 
the preceding, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress 
of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the 
negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed ; as, 
'' He is rich, but he is not respectable." There appears to be, in general, equal 
reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when the 
course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The 
following sentences may therefore be improved: ''Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but j-ests 
only ;" or, " but it will rest only." " Virtue is praised by many, and would 
be desired also, if her worth were really known;" "and she would." "The 
world begins to recede, and will soon disappear j" "and it will." 

Do conjunctions ever connect different moods and tenses of verbs? What 
case must generally be repeated in such instances ? Give an example. 

1. 

*^ We have met with many disap- quired great riches, but do not 

pointments ; and, if life con- command esteem." 

tiiiue, shall (1) probably meet ^'Our seasons of improvement are 

with many more.'' short, and, whether used or not, 

" Eank may confer influence, but will soon pass away." 

will (2) not necessarily produce "He might have been happy, and 

virtue." is now (3) fully convinced of it." 

" He does not want courage, but is '' Learning strengthens the mind, 

defective in sensibility." and, if properly applied, will 

" These people have indeed ac- improve our morals too." 

RULE XXVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XTX. 

So7ne conjunctions require the indicative^ some the subjunc- 
tive^ mood after them. It is a general rule^ that when 
something contingent or doubtful is implied^ the sub- 
junctive ought to be used ; as, " If I were to write, he 
would not regard it ;" '' He will not be pardoned, 
unless he repeiitJ^ 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature re^ 
quire the indicative mood, ^^As virtue advances^ so vice 
recedes f" " He is healthy, because he is temperate." 

The conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, ichether, etc., generally require 
the subjunctive mood after them; as, *' If thou be aiSicted, repine not;" 
'' TJiounh he sl'iy me, yet will I trust in him;'* '' He cannot be clean, unless 
he wash himself;" ^- No power, except it loere given from above;" '^Whether 
it loere I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the 
sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative; as, '• Though he is 
poor, he is contented." 

The following example may, in somt. measure, serve to illustrate the dis- 
tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods : " Though he were 

(1.) "we shall." (2.) '' U ivill," (3.) '* and now he is." 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme 
authority ; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and could, there- 
fore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles; yet, in com- 
pliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable creatures are 
usually wrought upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was divinely in- 
spired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken 
for granted, as not admitting the least doubt ; they would therefore have been 
better expressed in the indicative mood: " Though he loas divinely inspired; 
though he was endued with supernatural powers." The subjunctive is used 
in the like iaiproper manner, in the following example : " Though he were a 
son, yet learned he obedience, by the things which he suffered/^ But, in a 
similar passage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employed to the same 
purpose ; " Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor/' 

What conjunctions generally require the subjunctive mood after them? 
" If he acquires ( 1 ) riches, they will '^ Though he were her friend, he did 



corrupt his mind, and be useless 
to others.'^ 

"Though he urges me yet more 
earnestly, I shall not comply, 
unless he advances more forci- 
ble reasons." 

'* I shall walk in the fields to-day, 
unless it rains^ 

^^ As the governess were (2) present, 
the children behaved properly." 

" She disapproved the measure, be- 
cause it were very improper." 

*^ Though he be high, he hath re- 
spect to the lowly." 



not attempt to justify her con- 
duct." 

" Whether he improve or not, I can- 
not determine." 

" Though the fact be extraordinary, 
it certainly did happen " 

"Remember what thou wert, and 
be (3) humble." 

"O that his heart was tender, and sus- 
ceptible of the woes of others." 

" Shall then this verse to future age 
pretend. 
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, 
and friend ?" 



1. Lest and that^ annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require the 
subjunctive mood ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty ;" *' Reprove 
not a scorner, lest he hate ;hee;" *' Take heed that thou sjjeak not to Jacob." 

If, with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive 
mood; as, ^' If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke;'* "If he he but 
discreet, he will succeed." But the indicative ought to be used, on this occa- 
sion, when future time is not signified; as, "If in this expression, he does 
but jest, no offence should be taken ;" " If she is but sincere, I am happy." 
The same distinction applies to the following forms of expression ; " If he do 
submit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though he does submit, he is not con- 
vinced;" " If thou do not reward this service, he will be discouraged;" "If 
thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence." 

When do lest and that require the subjunctive mood after them ? When 
does ?y require the subjunctive ? When the indicative? 

" Despise not any condition, lest it 



happens to be your own." 

"Let him that is sanguine take 
heed lest he miscarries.''^ 

*' Take care that thou breakest not 
any of the established rules." 

" If he does but (4) intimate his de- 
sire, it will be sufficient to pro- 
duce obedience." 

" At the time of his return, if he is 
but expert in the business, he 
will find employment." 

" If he do but speak to display his 



abilities, he is worthy of atten- 
tion." 

" If he be but in health, I am con- 
tent." 

"If he does promise, he will cer- 
tainly perform." 

" Though he do praise her, it is 
only for her beauty." 

"If thou dost not forgive, perhaps 
thou wilt not be forgiven." 

" If thou do sincerely believe the 
truths of religion, act accord* 
ingly." 



(1.) 464. 



(2.) 465. 



(3.) Imperative. 



(4.) 654. 



SYNTAX. 173 

2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed or understood, 
seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood : " So much 
she dreaded his tyranny, that tha fate of her friend she dare not lament;" 
*^ He reasoned so artfully, that his friends would listen, and think \t]Lai\ he 
were not wrong.'' 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? 

2. 
"His confused behavior made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make 

sonable to suppose that he were any reply." 

guilty." "His apology was so plausible, that 

"He is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought 

he were innocent." 

3. To use after the same conjunction both the indicative and the subjunctive 
mood in the same sentence, and under the same circumstances, seems to be a 
great impropriety ; as, " If there 6b but one body of legislators, it is no better 
than a tyranny, if there are only two, there will want a casting voice." " If 
a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray," etc. 

May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive and the indicative mood 
after it in the same sentence ? Give an example of this impropriety. 

3. 
" If one man ^re/er a life of industry, hopes for some singular advan- 

it is because he has an idea of tage." 

comfort in wealth; if another " Though the design be laudable, and 
prefers a life of gayety, it is from is favorable to our interest, it 

a like idea concerning pleasure." will involve much anxiety and 

"No one engages in that business, labor." 

unless he aim at reputation, or 

4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have 
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the 
sentence, and made it regular; and it is probable that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words now in use; which 
will appear from the following examples: "We shall overtake him, though 
he run f that is, "though he should mn." "Unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomj)lish his purpose;" that is, "unless he shall act prudently." 
"If he succeed and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it;" that is, 
"If he should succeed, and should obtain his end." These remarks and 
examples are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunc- 
tive forms of expression; and to enable the student to examine the propriety 
of using them, by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and 
ancient connections. But it is necessary to be more particular on this sub- 
ject, and therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the sub- 
junctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the 
terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will 
be evident from the following examples : " If i\io\ji prosjjer, thou shouldst be 
thankful." " Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned." Some 
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations; 
" If thou prosjjeresf," etc. ; " Unless he studies," etc. ; and, as there is great 
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re- 
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different 
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that a change to the 
subjunctiv3 form is necessary, when these two circumstances concur : 1st, 
When the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and, 2d, When the verb 
has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
stances will be found to unite : " If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself." 
"He has a hard heart; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer." "He 
will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate." " Whether he succeed 
or not, his intention is laudable." "If he he not prosperous, he will not re- 
pine." "If a m:in smite his servant, and he die," etc. (Exod. xxi. 20.) In all 
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to 
future time. But in the instances which follow,' future time is not referred to; 

15* 



17-i ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and therefore a different construction takes j^lace : *' If thou live>if virtuouslyv 
thou art happy. '^ ^' Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless/' 
*' If he allows the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her precepts.'* 
^' Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us." '* Whether 
virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dispute." " if thou 
helievest with all thy heart, thou mayest," etc. (Acts viii. 37.) There are many 
sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither contingency nor 
futurity is denoted; as, '^ Though he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds 
him in virtue." " I have no doubt of his principles ; but if he believes the 
truths of religion, he does not act according to them." 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary, as 
tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, will be evident, by inspecting 
the following examples ; which show that there are instances in which neither 
of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three examples following, 
contingency is denoted, but not futurity: " If he thinks as he speaks, he may 
safely be trusted." '^ If he is now disposed to it, I will perform the oper-^.tion." 
"He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me." In the following sentences, 
. futurity is signified, but not contingency. '^ As soon as the sun sets, it will be 
cooler." *'As the autumn advances, these birds will graduall}^ emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above 
mentioned may be extended to assert that, in cases wherein contingency and 
futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification 
of present time, or to change it to the subjunctive form. The verb should be 
in the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions may attend it. If these rules, 
which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the in- 
dicative mood in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we 
should have, on this point, a simple and precise principle of decision. It 
will, doubtless, sometimes ha.ppen that, on this occasion, as well as on many 
other occasions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules would render the 
language stiff and formal ; but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to 
give the expression a different turn, than to violate the rules of grammar. 

Has the present tenst of the subjunctive mood a future signification ? How 
is this effected? What two circumstances should concur to render necessary 
this change of termination ? 

Should the termination be changed when futurity and contingency do not 
concur ? What mood or form will the verb then be in ? 



** Unless he learns faster, he will be Persevere until thou gainest the 

no scholar." summit : there, all is order, 

''Though he falls, he shall not be beauty, and pleasure." 

utterly cast down." "If Charlotte desire to gain esteem 

" On condition that he comes, I will and love, she does not employ the 

consent to stay." proper means." 

"However that affair terivinafes, (1) "Unless the accountant deceive me, 

my conduct will be unimpeach- my estate is considerably im- 

able." proved." 

" If virtue rewards us not so soon as " Though self-government produce 

we desire, the payment will be some uneasiness, it is light when 

made with interest." compared with the pain of vicious 

"Till repentance composes bis mind, indulgence." 

he will be a stranger to peace." "Whether he think as he speaks, 

''Whether he confesses or not, the time will discover." 

truth will certainly be discov- "If thou censure uncharitably, thou 

ered." deservest no favor." 

"If thou censurest uncharitably, thou "Though Virtue appear severe, she 

wilt be entitled to no favor." is truly amiable." 

" Though, at times, the ascent to the " Though success be very doubtful, 

temple of virtue appears steep it is proper that he endeavors to 

and craggy, be not discouraged. succeed." 

(1.) Ov, ** may terminatt*" , 



SYNTAX. 175 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunctive 
mood, it seems proper to m:\ke a few observations. Some writers express 
themselves in the perfect tense as follows : *^ If thou Aa re determined, we must 
submit;" '^ Unless he huce consented, the writing will be void;" but we be- 
lieve that few authors of critical sagacity write thus. The proper form seems 
to be, *' If thou liast determined," '^ Unless he haH consented," etc., conformably 
to what we generally meet with in the Bible : "' I have surnamed thee, though 
thou /m.9^not known me." (Isaiah xlv. 4, 5.) '^ What is the hope of the hypo- 
crite, though he hath gained," etc. (Job xxvii. 8. See, also, Acts xxviii. 4.) 

*• If thou have determined, we must submit." How should this sentence be 
altered? 

5. 
" If thou have promised, be faithful submission, he is too generous to 

to thy engagement." exact it." 

** Though he have proved his right to *' Unless he have improved, he is unfit 

for the office." 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such expres- 
sions as these: ''If thou 7/fto? applied thyself diligentl^y, thou wouldst have 
reaped the advantage ;" " Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we cannot 
determine ;" '* If thou ivill undertake the business, there is little doubt of suc- 
cess." This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be war- 
ranted by the general practice of correct writers. They should be, hadst, 
sholtj and wilt ; and we find them used in this form in the Sacred Scriptures : 
** If thou hadnt known," etc. (Luke xix. 47.) '^ If thou hadst been here," etc. 
(John xi. 21.) " If thou wilt, thou canst make me clean." (Matt. viii. 2. See, 
also, 2 Sam. ii, 27; Matt. xvii. 4.) 

''If thou will undertake the business, there is little doubt of success.*^ Is 
this mode of expression warranted by good authority ? How should it be 
altered ? 

6. 
" If thou had succeeded, perhaps of the measure, we shall not 

thou wouldst not be the happier desire thy support." 

for it." ^' Though thou will not acknowledge, 

" Unless thou shall see the propriety thou canst not deny the fact." 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive 
mood is also very frequently varied in its termination ; as, *' If thou loved him 
truly, thou wouldst obey him ;" '' Though thou did conform, thou hast gained 
nothing by it." This variation, however, appears to be improper. Our pres- 
ent version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a good grammatical 
authority in points of this nature, decides against it : " If thou hnewest the 
gift," etc. (John iv. 10.) '* If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory," etc. 
(1 Cor. iv. 7. See, also, Dan. v. 22.) But it is proper to remark that the form 
of the verb to he, when used subjunctively in the imperfect tense, is indeed 
very considerably and properly varied from that which it has in the imper- 
fect of the indicative mood; as the learner will perceive by turning to the 
conjugation of that verb. 

Is the second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its termina- 
tion in the subjunctive mood ? Will you give an example ? Is this variation 
proper ? 

7. 
"If thou gave liberally, thou wilt "Was he ever so great and opu- 

receive a liberal reward." lent, this conduct would debase 

" Though thou did injure him, he him." 

harbors no resentment." " Was I to enumerate all her virtues, 

" It would be well, if the report was it would look like flattery." 

only the misrepresentation of her " Though I was perfect, yet would I 

enemies." not presume." 

8. It may not be superfluous also to observe that the auxiliaries of the po- 
tential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination 
of the second person singular. We properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go -/* 
** Though thou mightst live;" " Unless thou couldst read;" " If thou wouldst 
learn;" aiid not, "If thou ma^ or can go,*' etc. It is sufl5cient, on this point. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth : — " Tf thou shouldst go ;*' 
Johnson, ^' It' thou mayst, mightfit, or couldst love;" Lowth. Some authors 
think that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
auxiliaries should be varieu ; as, '^ I advise thee, that thou may beware ;" '* He 
checked thee, that thou should not presume ;" but there does not appear to be 
any ground for this exception. If the expression of *^ condition, doubt, con- 
tingency," etc., does not warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries, 
why should they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The trans- 
lators of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended 
for. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king." (Neh. vi. 6.) 
^' There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." (Ps. cxxx. 4.) 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears that, with re- 
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circumstances 
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of the 
second and third persons singular ,• that without the concurrence of those cir- 
cumstances, the terminations should not be altered; and that the verb and the 
auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un- 
dergo no alterations whatever, except t\iQ imperfect of the verb to he, which, in 
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for 
the student to inquire, What is the extent of the subjunctive mood ? Some 
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs 
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, and to the im- 
perfect tense of the verb to he, when it denotes contingency, etc. ; because in 
these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose 
that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It is 
the opinion of other grammarians (in which opinion we concur) that, besides 
the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past and the two future 
tenses are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency or uncer- 
tainty, though they have not any change of termination ; and that, when con- 
tingency is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to 
the indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They think that 
the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood have no j;eference to change 
of termination, but that they refer merely to the manner of the being, action, 
or passion signified by the verb ; and that the subjunctive mood may as prop- 
erly exist without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, which has 
no terminations difi"erent from those of the indicative. The decision of this 
point may not, by some grammarians, be thought of much consequence. But 
the rules which ascertain the propriety of varying or not varying the termi- 
nations of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be 
well observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the nature and 
limits of the subjunctive mood.* 

Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
change the termination of the second person singular? When is it proper to 
vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the present 
tense ? Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the auxiliaries of 
the first future, undergo any alteration ? What exception ? What is the opin- 
ion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the subjunctive mood ? 
What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which of these opinions does 
the author concur ? 

8. 

''If thou may share in his labors, be ^' Unless thou can fairly support the 

thankful, and do it cheerfully." cause, give it up honorably." 

* W^e have stated, for the student's information, the different opinions of grammarians, respecting the 
English subjunctive mood ; First, that which supposes there is no such moodiu our language ; Secondly, 
that which extends it no farther than the variations of the verb extend; Thirdly, that which we have 
adopted, and explained at large, and which, in general, corresponds with the views of the most approved 
writers on English grammar. We may add a Fourth opinion, which appears to possess, at least, much 
plausibility. This opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, that of 
assigning to the first rtnse of the subjunctive two forms— 1st, that which simply denotes contingency; 
as, " If he desires it, 1 will perform the operation ;" that is, if he now desires it. 2dly, that which denotes 
both contingency and futurity ; as, " If he desire it, I will perform the operation ;" that is, " If he should 
hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood claims the merit of rendering the whole 
system of the mood.s consistent and regular ; of being more conformable than any other to the definition 
of the subjunctive, and of not referring to. the indicative mood forms of expression which ill accord with 
its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear a strict examination. 



SYNTAX. 



177 



"Though thou might have foreseen 
the danger, thou couldst not have 
avoided it." 

"If thou could convince him, he 
would not act accordingly." 

" If thou would improve in know- 
ledge, be diligent." 



'Unless thou should make a timely 
retreat, the danger will be un- 
avoidable." 

' I have labored and wearied myself 
that thou may be at ease." 

*He enlarged on those da^igers, that 
thou should avoid them." 



9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them, 
either expressed or understood; as, 

1st. Though — yet, nevertheless ; as, " Thmigh he was rich, yet for your sakes he became 
poor;" " Tnough powerful, nevertheless he was meek.'' 

2d. WJiether — or; as, ''Wiether ho will go or not, I cannot tell." 

3d. Either — or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." ^ 

4th. Neither— nor ; as, ''Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 

5th. As—o,s; expressing a comparison of equality; as, '"She is as amiable as her sis- 
>r, and as much respected." 

6th. As — so ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, "v4s the stars, so shall thy seed 
be." 

7th. As — so; expressing a comparison of manner; as, "J.s the one dieth, so dieth the 
other ;" ''As he reads, so they read." 

8th. So — as ; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, "To see thy glory, 
so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9th. So — as ; with a negative and au adjective expressing a comparison of quantity; 
as, "Pompey was not so great a general as Cjesar, nor so great a man." 

10th. So — that; expressing a consequence; as, "He was so fatigued, that he could 
scarcely move." 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used with nearly equal pro- 
priety. *' The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor deci- 
sive, assented to the measure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have 
been better; but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negatiofi in the former 
part of the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. 

Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong- 
ing to them ? Give examples. 

" Neither the cold or the fervid, but 



characters uniformly warm, are 

formed for friendship." 
"They are both praiseworthy, and 

one is equally (1) deserving as 

the other." 
" He is not as diligent and learned as 

his brother." 
" I will present it to him myself, or 

direct it to be given to him." 
" Neither despise or oppose what thou 

dost not understand." 
" The house is not as commodious as 

we expected it would be." 
^*I must, however, be so candid to 

own I have been mistaken.^' 
" There was something so amiable, 

and yet so piercing, in his look, 

a8 (2) affected me at once with 

love and terror." 

. '' I gained a son ; 

And such a son as all men hailed me 

happy." 



"The dog in the manger would not 
eat the hay himself, nor suffer the 
ox to eat it." 

" As far as I am able to judge, the 
book is well written." 

"We should faithfully perform the 
trust committed to us, or ingenu- 
ously relinquish the charge." 

" He is not as eminent, and as much 
esteemed, as he thinks himself 
to be." 

" The work is a dull performance, and 
is neither capable of pleadng (3) 
the understanding, or the imagi- 
nation." 

" There is no condition so secure, as 
cannot admit of change." 

" This is an event which nobody pre- 
sumes upon, or is so sanguine to 
hope for." 

'MYe are generally pleased with any 
little accomplishments of body or 
mind." 



10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The 
following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain, 
as that they require a great deal of examination ;" it should be, *^ that they 
require," etc. "There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend 



(1.) For "equally" read "as." 



(2.) '*thatitr 



(3.) '' neither t?i6.** 



178 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

X 

some ill consequences;" it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend,** 
etc. ; or, ^' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," etc. " To trust in 
him is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but the 
gate of paradise." In both of these instances but should be than, '* We 
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope; whether they are such as 
f?e may reasonably expect from them what they propose," etc. It ought to 
*we, '' that we may reasonably," etc. ^' The duke had not behaved with that 
loyalty as he ought to have done ;" " icith lohich he ought." '* In the order 
as they lie in his preface ;" it should be, " in order as they lie ;" or " in tho 
order in which they lie." " Such sharp replies that cost him his life ;" " as 
cost," etc. " If he were truly that scarecrow as he is now commonly painted ;" 
*' such a scarecrow," etc. *' I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to 
oblige the painters," etc. ; " do such justice as to oblige," etc. 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? What is said of 
sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an exam- 
ple. When has as the force of a relative pronoun? (1) Give an example. 



There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form of a 
verb. '-'•Were there no difference, there would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made 
use of; as, " Had l»e done this, he had escaped ;" -'■Had the limitations on the preroga- 
tive been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made, him regard as 
sacred the boundaries of the constitution." The sentence in the common form Mould 
have read thus: "If the limitations on the prerogative had been," etc., "his integrity 
would have made him regard," etc. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force of a rela- 
tive pronoun ; as, " Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" 
which is equivalent to, " Let them who presume," etc. But when used by itself, this 
particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent to notwith- 
standing. The words /or all (hat seem to be too low. "The word was in the mouth of 
tvery one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret." 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated; because would do much better in the follow- 
ing sentence: "It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from 
that of every other language." 

The word except is far preferable to other than. " It admitted of no effectual cure 
other than amputation." Except is also to be preferred to all but. " They were happy, 
all but the stranger." In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improperly 
omitted: "Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine . to hope." "I must, however, 
be so just . to own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood; as, "I begged you 
would come to me:" "See thou do it not;" instead of " that you would," "that thou 
do." But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction were much 
better inserted: "Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to posterity." 
It should be, " Yet it is just that the memory," etc. 

10. 
**Be ready to succor such persons "He gained nothing further by his 

who (2) need thy assistance." speech, but only (6) to be com- 

" The matter was no sooner pro- mended for his eloquence." 

posed, but (3) he privately with- "He has little more of the scholar 

drew to consider it." besides the name." 

*^He has too much sense and pru- " He has little of the scholar <Aan the 

dence than to become a dupe to name." 

such artifice." " They had no sooner risen, but 

** It is not suflBcient that our conduct, they applied themselves to their 

as far as it respects others, ap- studies." 

pears to be unexceptionable." " From no other institution, besides 

**The resolution was not the less the admirable one of juries, could 

fixed, that (4) the secret was yet so great a benefit be expected." 

communicated to very few." " Those savage people seemed to 

**He opposed the most remarkable have no other element but war." 

corruptionsof the churchof Rome, "Such men that act treacherously 

so (5) as that his doctrines were ought to be avoided." 

embraced by great numbers." 



(1.) 656. (2.) "as." (3.) *'than" (4.) "though." (5.) *'and on this account." (6.; "eorcepi." 



SYNTAX. 179 

" Germany ran the same risk as Italy " No errors are so trivial, but they (1) 
had done." deserve to be corrected.'' 

RULE XXIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter 
noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjiinction than or 
as, but it either agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb 
or the preposition, expressed or understood; as, '^ Thou art 
wiser than I;" that is, " than I am." "- They loved him 
more than me ;" that is, " more than they loved me." 
" The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much 
better by Solomon than him :" that is, " than by him." 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases in the preceding, as well as 
in some other form?, may be discovered by supplying the words that are not 
expressed, which will be evident from the following instances of erroneous 
construction: *^He can read better than me." '^ He is as good as her." 
''Whether I be present or no." "Who did this? Me." By supplying the 
words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing 
rule will appear ; as, " better than I can read ;" " as good as she is ;" *^ present 
or not present;" ''I did it." 

"Thou art wiser than I." Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it? 
'*In some respects, we have had as "They know how to write as well 
many advantages as them; but as him; but he is a much better 

in the article of a good library, grammarian than them." 

they have had a greater privilege "Though she is not so learned as 
than us." him, she is as much beloved and 

''The undertaking was much better respected." 

executed by his brother than he." "These people, though they possess 
'* They are much greater gainers than more shining qualities, are not so 

me by this unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed, a num- 
ber of which are subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner: 
" Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." " She suifers hourly 
more than me." " We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were 
obliged to the same proportion more than us." " King Charles, and, more 
than him. the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
schemes." "The drift of all his sermons was to prepare the Jews for the 
reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy 
to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent an author as him to whom it 
was first imputed." "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's 
wrath is heavier than them both." " If the king give us leave, we ma}^ per- 
form the office as well as them that do." In these passages it ought to be 
" /, 2oe, he, they," respectively. 

When the relative luho immediately follows than, it seems to form an ex- 
ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be in the 
objective case; as, "Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned," etc. 
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," etc. It is remark- 
able that, in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would be 
in the nominative case : as, " A greater king never reigned than he ;" that is, 
'Uhan he toa-s." "Beelzebub, than he," etc.; that is, ''than he sat." The 
phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

" She suffers hourly more than me." \N\\\ you correct this sentence, and 
explain why it is v/rong? 

(1.) *'that they do not" 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. 
"Who betrayed her companion?*' "Whether he will be learned or no, 

" Not me." must depend on his application/' 

"Who revealed the secrets he ought " Charles XII. of Sweden, than who 

to have concealed ?" ^ Not him." (1) a more courageous person 

" Who related falsehoods to screen never lived, appears to have been 

herself, and to bring odium upon destitute of the tender sensibilities 

others?'' "Notwiey it was Aer." of nature." 

" There is but one in fault, and that " Salmasius (a more learned man than 

is me." him has seldom appeared) was not 

happy at the close of life." 

RULE XXX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas 
in a few words., an ellipsis^ or omission of some words^ 
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, '' He was a 
learned man, lie was a wise man, and he was a good 
man/' we make use of the ellipsis, and say, '' He was a 
learned, wise, and good man.'' 

Yvlien the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended loith an impropriety, they 
must be expressed. In the sentence, '-'- We are apt to 
love who love us," the word them should be supplied. 
''A beautiful field and trees," is not proper language ; 
it should be, V Beautiful fields and trees," or^ "A beau- 
tiful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical; and some ex- 
amples of ellipsis may be found under the different parts of speech. 

"I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will .you correct this sen- 
tence, and repeat the latter part of KuleXXX., by which the correction is made? 
'^ I gladly shunned (2) who gladly fled fell a victim to the madness of the 

from me." people, ft-uth, virtue, religion, fell 

"And this is (3) it men mean by dis- with him." (5) 

tributive justice, and is properly " The fear of death, nor hope of life, 
termed equity." could make him submit to a dis- 

*^His honor, interest, religion, were honest action." (6) 

all embarked in this undertak- " An elegant house and furniture 
ing." (4) were, by this event, irrecoverably 

" When so good a man as Socrates lost to the owner." (7) 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used : "A man, woman, and child;" 
that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." "A house and garden;" that is, 
" a house and a garden." " The sun and moon ;" that is, " the sun and the 
moon." ''■ The day and hour ;" that is, " The day and the hour." In all these 
instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes un- 
necessary. There is, however, an exception to this observation, when some 
peculiar emphasis requires a repetition, as in the following sentence: ^' Not 
only the year, but the day and the hour." In this case, the ellipsis of the 
Inst article would he improper. When a different form of the article is 
requisite, the article is also properly repeated ; as, '^ a house and an orchard," 
instead of "a hons^ and orchard." 

(1.) " j-c/iOM."— Note XX. (648.) (2.) ''him lohn." (3.) " that ivhich." (4.) Insert 
"his" twice more. (5.) "and" twice. (6.) '' Neither— nor." (7.) ''much costly. " 



SYNTAX. 181 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the article? Is it necessary to 
repeat the article in each of these instances ? 

** These rules are addressed to none with an unimproved, or with a 

but the intelligent and the (1) at- corrupted, mind." 

tentive." " The more I see of his conduct, I like 

"The gay and fAe pleasing are, some- him better." 

times, the most insidious, and the ^' It is not only the duty, but interest, 
most dangerous companions." of young persons to be studious 

**OId age will prove a joyless and a and diligent." 

dreary season, if we arrive at it 

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner: '' The laws of 
God and man ;" that is, '•' The laws of God and the laws of man." In some 
very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, ^'Christ, the 
power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is more emphatical than 
" Christ the power and wisdom of God." 

Will you give an example of the omission of the noun f Should this ellipsis 
always be used ? 

2. 
'^ These ounsels were the dictates of entertainment, when others leave 

virtue, and the dictates (2) of true us." (4) 

honor." '' Without firmness, nothing that is 

"Avarice and cunning may acquire great can be undertaken,* that is 

an estate, but avarice and cun- difficult or hazardous, can be ac- 

ning cannot gain friends." (3) complished." (5) 

"A taste for useful knowledge will "The anxious man is the votary of 
provide for us a great and noble riches ; the negligent, of pleas- 

ure." (6) 

3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : " A delight- 
ful garden and orchard :" that is, "A delightful garden and a delightful orch- 
ard." " A little man and woman :" that is, " a little man and a little woman." 
In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to have exactly the 
same signification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter sub- 
stantive as to the former: otherwise the ellipsis- should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of difi"erent numbers; 

as, "A magnificent house and gardens." In this case it is better to use another 

adjective; as, "'A magnificent house and fine gardens." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective? What rule is to 

be observed in the use of this ellipsis ? 

3. 

" His crimes had brought him into " That species of commerce will pro- 
extreme distress and extreme duce great gain or loss." (10) 
perplexity." (7) "Many days, and even weeks, pass 

"He has an affectionate brother, and away unimproved." (10) 

an aff'ectionate sister, and they live "This wonderful action struck the 
in great harmony." (8) beholders with exceeding (11) 

"We must guard against too great se- astonishment." (10) 

verity,and facilityof manners. "i 9) "'The people of this country possess 

"We should often recollect what the a healthy climate and soil." (9) 

wisest men have said and written " They enjoy also a free constitution 
concerning human happiness and and law's." (10) 

vanity." (10) 

4. The following is the ellipsis of ih.^ pronoun : "' I love and fear him:" 
that is, "' I love him, and I fear him." " My house and lands :" that is, " My 
house, and my lands." In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with 
propriety; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be 
used; as, " His friends and his foes :" " My sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually 
omitted: as. "This is the m an they love," instead of, " This is the man 

'I.) Reject '■ f.^e.' (2.) ' virtw and of trw.. ' (o.i Insert " they" in the place of two nouns. 

'4.) Insert " entertainments: (5.: Insert -•nothing. (6.) Insert " mm ih?it." (7.^ Reject an adjectiTe. 
(8,) Reject two words, (ft.) Insert two words. (10.) lusert aa adjective. {\\.) ' exceedin^y." 

16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

whom they love ;" *' These are the goods they bought/^ for '' These are the 
goods which they bought/^ 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex- 
pressed; as it is more proper to say, ^' The posture in which I lay/' than " In 
the posture I lay -," ^' The horse on which I rode fell down/' than ** The horse 
I rode fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together; 
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other with 
great exactness. ^' We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." 
Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplieTi ; as, ^' We 
speak that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun ? Can this ellipsis 
be properly used at all times ? 

4. 
''His reputation and his estate were "He is not only sensible and learned, 

both lost by gaming." (1) but is religious too." (2) 

"This intelligence not only excited "The Chinese language contains an 
our hopes, but fears too." (2) immense number of words; and 

" His conduct is not scandalous ; and who would learn them must pos- 

that is the best can be said of sess a great memory." (2) 

it." (3) *' By presumption and by vanity, we 

" This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur 

had greatly abused, and sus- contempt." (1) 

tained the injustice with singu- "In the circumstances I was at that 
lar patience." time, my troubles pressed heavily 

"He discovered some qualities in the upon me." (4) 

youth of a disagreeable nature, " He had destroyed his constitution, 
and to him were wholly unac- by the very same errors that so 

countable." (2) many have been destroyed." 

" The captain had several men died 
in his ship of the scurvy." (2) 
5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The man was 
old and crafty ;" that is, " The man was old, and the man was crafty." " She 
was young, and beautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was young, she was beau- 
tiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and 
blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou 
art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the 
rest, that property must be placed last and the ellipsis supplied; as, "She is 
young and beautiful, and she is good." 

" I went to see and hear him ;" that is, "I went to see, and I went to hear 
him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, / 
icent, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 
Do, did, have, had, shall, ivill, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of 
the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare the repetition of the 
verb ; as, " He regards his word, but thou dost not ;" that is, " dost not regard 
it." " We succeeded, but they did not ;" " did not succeed." " I have learned 
my task, but thou hast not ;" " hast not learned." " They must, and they 
shall be punished;" that is, "they must be punished." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb? Suppose we wish to point 
out one property above the rest ? How are the auxiliaries sometimes used? 

5. 
" He is temperate, he is disinterested, " Perseverance in laudable pursuits 
he is benevolent ; he is an orna- will reward all our toils, and will 

ment to his family, and a credit produce effects beyond our calcu- 

to his profession." (5) lation." (7) 

" Genuine virtue supposes our benev- "It is happy for us, when we can 
olence to be strengthened, and to calmly and deliberately look back 

be confirmed by principle." (6) on the past, and can quietly an- 

ticipate the future." (7) 

(1.) Reject a propoun. (2.) Insert a pronoun. (3.) '* fhai—ihaU" (4.) Insert two wordtL 
C'5.) Reject six words, and insert one. (6.) Reject two words. (7.) Reject one word. 



SYNTAX. 



183 



*'Tbe sacrifices of virtue will not only 
be rewarded hereafter, but recom- 
pensed even in this life." (1) 

"All those possessed of any oflBce 
resigned their former commis- 
sion." (2) 

^*If young persons were determined 
to conduct themselves by the 



rules of virtue, not only would 
they escape innumerable dan- 
gers, but command respect from 
the licentious themselves." (2) 
^ Charles was a man of learning, 
knowledge, and benevolence; 
and, what is still more, a true 
Christian." (2) 



6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner : '* He spoke 
and acted wisely ;" that is, '' He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." " Thrice 
I went and offered my service;" that is, '* Thrice I went, and thrice I offered 
my service." 

How is the ellipsis of the adverb used? 



"The temper of him who is always 
in the bustle of the world will 
be often ruffled, and be often 
disturbed." (3) 

** We often commend imprudently, 
as well as censure imprudent- 

ly." (4) 



" How a seed grows up into a tree, 
and the mind acts upon the body, 
are mysteries which we cannot 
explain." (5) 

"Verily there is a reward for the 
righteous. There is a God that 
judgeth in the earth." (5) 



7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the fol- 
lowing instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;" 
that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into 
the public buildings." "He also went through all the streets and lanes of 
the city;" that is, "through all the streets, and through all the lanes," etc. 
" He spoke to every man and woman there ;" that is, " to every man and to 
every woman." " This day, next month, last year ;" that is, " On this day, 
in the next month, in the last year." " The Lord do that which seemeth him 
good ;" that is, " which seemeth to him." 

Will yeu give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb? 

7. 
"Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blushed 

taking place, in men and in man- before." (5) 

ners, in opinions and in customs, " They are now reconciled to what they 



in private fortunes and public 

conduct." (5) (3) 
' Averse either to contradict or 

blame, the too complaisant man 

goes along with the manners that 

prevail." (5) 
' By this habitual indelicacy, the vir- 



could not formerly be prompted, 
by any considerations." (5) 

'• Censure is the tax which a man pays 
the public for being eminent." (5) 

" Reflect on the state of human life, 
and the society of men as mixed 
with good and with evil." (5) 



8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power, 
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, "the power, and wis- 
dom, and goodness, and love of," etc. " Though I love him, I do not flatter 
him;" that is, " Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction? 



" In all stations and conditions, the 
important relations take place, of 
masters and servants, and hus- 
bands and wives, and parents and 
children, and brothers andfriends, 
and citizens and subjects." (6) " 

"Destitute of principle, he regarded 
neither his family, nor his friends, 
nor his reputation." (4) 
9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not 

times used; as, "Oh, pity and shame!' 



Religious persons are often unjustly 
represented as persons of roman- 
tic character, visionary notions, 
unacquainted with the world, un- 
fit to live in it." (1) 

No rank, station, dignity of birth, 
possessions, exempt men from 
contributing their share to public 
utility." (7) 

very common : it, however, is some- 

' that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !" 



(1.) Insert three words. (2.) Insert two words. (3.") Reject two words. (4.) Reject 
lae word. (5.) lusert one word. (6.) Reject four words. (7.) "nor — no — nor any.'* 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, 
numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be ad- 
mitted here. 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable one : *^He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from 
one nation; and if another, from another;" that is, *' He will often argue, 
that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain 
from another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis: **Wo 
is me ;" i. e., " wo is to me." ^^ To let blood ;" i. e., " to let out blood." ^' To 
let down ;" i. e., " to let it fall or slide down." *' To walk a mile ;" i. e., '' to 
walk through the space of a mile." ^^ To sleep all night;" i.e., *' to sleep 
through all the night." " To go a fishing;" *' To go a hunting ;" i. e., "' to go 
on a fishing voyage or business;" "to go on a hunting party." '* I dine at 
two o'clock ;" i. e., " at two of the clock." ^* By sea, by land, on shore;" i. e., 
**by the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection? 

9. 
"Oh, my father! Oh, my friend! "Oh, piety! virtue! how insensible 
how great has been my ingrati- have I been to your charms !" 

tude!"(l) (2) 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during 
pleasure, by those intrusted with the command ;" it should be, " those per- 
sons intrusted;" or, "those loho were intrusted." "If he had read farther, 
he would have found several of his objections might have been spared ;" that 
is, "he would have found that several of his objections," etc. " There is 
nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters ;" it 
ought to be, "nothing in which men are more deficient, than in knowing," etc. 
" I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety 
and use ;" it should be, " which would yield,'' etc. " In the temper of mind 
he was then;" that is, "in which he then was." "The little satisfaction and 
consistency to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, 
made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" it ought to 
be, ^' which are to be found," and ^^ which I have met with." "He desired 
they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to whom 
only they were due;" that is, " fo him to whom," etc. 

" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own 
characters." Will you correct this sentence ? 

10. 

" That is a property most men have, "Most, if not a.ll, the royal family 

or at least may attain." (3) had quitted the place." (2) 

"Why do ye that which is not lawful "By these happy labors, they who 

to do on the sabbath days ?" (2) sow and reap, will rejoice U>- 

" The show-bread, which is not lawful gether." (4) 

to eat,butforthe priests alone. "(2) 

RULE XXXI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other : 
a regular and dependent construction^ throughout^ should 
be carefully preserved. The following sentence is^ there- 
fore^ inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so 

(1.) Reject one word. (2.) lusert one word. (3. ) insert three words. (4.) Insert two words. 



SYNTAX. 185 

much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, '^ He wag 
more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The first example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely, 
" He was more beloved as Cinthio." The words more and so much are ver}' improperly 
stated as having; the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not necessary 
to supply the hitter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- 
struction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As the 31st Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, appear 
to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sentences pecu- 
liarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the true gram- 
matical construction of many modes of expression which none of the particular rules 
can sufficiently explain. 

" This dedication may serve for almost anj'- book, that has, is, or shall be published ;" 
it ought to be, " that has been, or shall be published." *' He was guided by interests 
always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;" " different /ro?/t;" 
or, "always different from those of the community-, and sometimes contrary to tliem." 
" Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older than tradition ?" the words 
"as old," and "older," cannot have a common regimen: it should be, "as old as tra- 
dition, or even older." "It rcfjuires few talents to which most men are not born, or 
at [east may not acquire ;" "or which, at least, they may not acquire." " The court of 
chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law." In this con- 
struction, the first verb is said to mitigate the teeth of the common law, which is an 
evident solecism. "Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have 
been grammatical. 

"They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown;" 
"grow into good language," is very improper. "There is never wanting a set of evil 
instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are always 
ready," etc. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of private 
hatred ;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, " he acts out of filthy lucre." 
" To double her kindness and caresses of me ;" the word ldndnes9> requires to be followed 
by eitlier to or for, and cannot be construed with the preposition of. "Never was man 
so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening ;" the first and 
third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased," " as I have done this evening," can^ 
not be joined without an impropriety ; and to connect the second and third, the word 
that must be substituted for as ; " or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done ;" oi 
else, " half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as are 
hardly consistent with one another: " How much soever the* reformation of this degen- 
erate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable 
prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the foUoM^ing form : 
" Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of," etc. 

"Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; in 
whose hands is wickedness, and theAr right hand is full of gifts." As the passage intro- 
duced by the copulative conjunction and was not intended as a continuation of the 
principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the 
relative whose should have been used instead of the possessive their; namely, "and 
whose right hand is full of gifts." 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the 
things which God hath prepared for them that love him." There seems to be an 
impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, 
performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases, 
" Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," etc., would have 
been regular. 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which 
we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very proper 
to say, " altering and compounding those images which we have once received, into all 
the varieties of jjicture and vision;" but we cannot with propriety say, "retaining 
them into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in which the words are 
ranged, this construction is unavoidable: for retaining, altering, and compounding are 
participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the subsequent noun, tliose 
images ; and that noun, again, is necessarily connected with the following preposition, 
into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by disjoining the participle 
retaining from the other two participles in this way : " We have the power of retaining 
those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into 
all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better thus : " We have the power 
cf retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, 
and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and vision." 

Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate? ^^This dedication 
laay serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published." WiU 
you point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them? 
16* 



186 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"Several alterations and additions 
have been made to the work." (1) 

"The first proposal was essentially 
different, and inferior to the sec- 
ond." (2) 

"He is more bold and active, but not 
so wise and studious as his com- 
panion." (3) 

^^Thou hearest the sound of wind, 
but thou canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and whither it goeth." 

*^ Neither has he, nor any other per- 
sons, suspected so much dissimu- 
lation." (4) 

'^The court of France or England 
was to have been the umpire." (5) 

*^ In the reign of Henry II. all foreign 
commodities were plenty in Eng- 
land." (6) 

*' There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts 
men more out of the reach of ac- 
cidents, than that quality gener- 
ally possessed by persons of cool 
temper, and is, in common lan- 
guage, called discretion." (7) 

*' The first project was to shorten dis- 
course, by cutting polysyllables 
into one." (8) 

"I shall do all I can to persuade 
others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have." (9) 

** The greatest masters of critical 
learning diff"er among 07ie an- 
other.'' 

*'Micaiah said, If thou certainly re- 
turn in peace, then hath not the 
Lord spoken by me." (10) 

"I do not suppose, that we Britons 
want a genius, more than the rest 
of our neighbors." (10) 
^The deaf man whose ears were 
opened, and his tongue loosened, 
doubtless glorified the great Phy- 
sician." (11) 



*^ Groves, fields, and meadows are, at 
any season of the year, pleasant 
to look upon ; but never so much 
as in the opening of the spring." 
(12) 

''The multitude rebuke them, because 
they should hold their peace." 

" The intentions of some of these phil- 
osophers, nay, of many, might 
and probably were good." (13) 

''It was an unsuccessful undertak- 
ing ; which, although it has failed, 
is no objection at all to an enter- 
prise so well concerted." (14) 

'' The reward is his due, and it has 
already, or will hereafter be given 
to him." (15) 

" By intercourse with wise and expe- 
rienced persons, who know the 
world, we may improve and rub 
off" the rust of a private and re- 
tired education." (16) 

" Sincerity is as valuable, and even 
more valuable, than knowledge." 
(17) 

" No person was ever so perplexed, 
or sustained the mortifications, as 
he has done to-day." (18) 

"The Romans gave not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity 
for employments, to several towns 
in Gaul, Spain, and Germany." 
(19) 

" Such writers have no other standard 
on which to form themselves, ex- 
cept what chances to be fashion- 
able and popular." (20) 

"Whatever we do secretly, shall be 
displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light." (21) 

" To the happiness of possessing a 
person of so uncommon merit, 
Boethius soon had the satisfaction 
of obtaining the highest honor his 
countrv could bestow." 



(1.) "This work has received," etc. (2. ) "was inferior to the second, and— from it.** 

(3.) " active than his ." (4.) Insert "^are." (5.) "orthatof." (6.) "plentiful." 

(7.) Insert " more " and " which." (8.) ** by reducing— to words of one syllable.'* 

(9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Eeject one word. (11.) Insert two words, and reject one. 
(12.) Insert "so." (13.) Insert " have been." (14.) "the failure of which is, however." 
(15.) Insert "been." (16.) End with '' and rub oj^ its rust." (17.) '' asknoivUdge.and.'^ 
(18.) Insert " been" for " done," and end with " such mortification" (19. j " th% inhabir 

iantsi^." (^.) Eeject one word. (21.) "displayed in the clearest." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the true pro- 
nunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, 
PAUSE, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



of accent. 



Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or 
syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the 
letter u, and second syllable same, which take the accent. 

OF quantity. 

The QUANTITY of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing 
it. It is considered long or short. 

a vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel, which occa- 
sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter; as, 
/all, idle, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions 
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, bonnet, hunger, 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro- 
nouncing it; thus, mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as 
mat and not. 

OF EMPHASIS. 

By EMPHASIS is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we 
distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress, 
and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em- 
phatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as 
by a greater stress. 

OF PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice 
during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. 

OF TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the 
modulation of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the 
expression of our sentiments. 



OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of 
syllables, according to certain laws. 

RhyjAie is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last 
sound of another. 

What is prosody? tion of a long syllable occupy than that of a 

What is accent? What is the quantity of a short one? What is emphasis? What are 

syllable? When is a vowel or syllable long? pauses? What are tones? What is versifica- 

When short? Give examples of each. tion? What is rhyme ? 
How much more time does the pronuncia- 

187 



188 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain numlDer of syllables connected form a foot. They are called feei 
because it is by their aid that the voice, sa it were, steps along through 'the 
verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two or of three syllables, and are 
reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee, — ^^^ A Dactyl, — ^— / \«/ 

An Iambus, ^ — An Amphibrach, ^-/ — v^/ 

A Spondee, — — An Anapaest, ^w- ^w' — 

A Pyrrhic, ^w/ ^w* A Tribrach, ^^ ^^ ^s_^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, 

"Hateful, pettish.'* 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, 

-* Betray, consist.'* 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, *^ The pale moon." 
A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, *^ on the tall tree." 
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented; as, 

•^Laborer, p6ssible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle 

one accented; as, ^^ Delightfiil, domestic." 

An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented; 

as, '^ Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, "Numerable, conquerable.*' 
Some of these may be denominated 7)ri??c?joa^ feet, as pieces of poetry may 

be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, 

Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because 

their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into 
sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the differ- 
ent pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double 
that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, 
double that of the colon. 



OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very 
closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it 
is composed have so near a relation to each other that, in general, no points 
are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom.*' *' Every part of Nature swarms with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative 
case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause im- 
mediately before the verb ; as, '' The good taste of the present age, has not 
allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." *' To be 
totally indiff"erent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." 

What constitutes a poetical foot, and why is it so What is punctuation ? What does the comma rep- 
called? how many syllables do poetical "feet con- resent? the semicolon ? the colon ? the period ? 
Bist . How many kinds'of feet are there, and what How is the comma used ? 

are they? What is a Trochee? an Iambus? a Snnn- " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 

dee? a Pyrrhic? a Dactyl ? an Amphibrach ' f>n Does this sentence require a pause in it ? Will you 

Anapaest ? a Tribrach ? Will you give an example give the rule for sentences of this kind ? " The good 

of each ? Which are Q2M.q^ principal feet t Vi'Jiion taste ot the present ngp has not allowed us to neglect 

secondary f Why? th« cultivation of the Euglisii language." Dees this 



PROSODY. 189 

Rule 2. — When the connection of the dififerent parts of a simple sentence 
is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, the comma is usually introduced before 
the beo-inning and at the end of the phrase ; as, " I remember, with gratitude, 
his o-oodness to me." ^* His work is, in many respects^ very imperfect." '^ It 
is, therefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions are slight 
and unimportant, the comma is better omitted; as, '' Flattery is certainly 
pernicious." ^' There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

RuLK 3. — AVhen two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
are parted by the comma; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- 
tremely." ''They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade." 

From this rule there is an exception, with regard to two nouns closely con- 
nected by a conjunction ; as, '• Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each 
other." '*' Libertines call religion bigotry o?* superstition." If the parts con- 
nected are not short, the comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is 
expressed; as, '' Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dan- 
gerous incentives to evil." 

Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, are 
likewise separated by commas; as^ ''Plain, honest truth wants no artificial 
covering." '• David was a brave, wise, and pious man." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa- 
rated by the comma; as, '' Truth is fair and artless. '^ " We must be wise or 
foolish : there is no medium." 

RrLE 5. — Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im- 
mediately following one another, are also separated by commas; as, "Virtue 
supports'in adversity, moderates in prosperity." '' In a letter we may advise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the 
rule: as, " The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception. 

Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must 
be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." 

" We must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously." 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by the 
comma; as, "Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." 

Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that depends upon 
them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; 
as, " The king, api^rocing the plan, put it in execution." '• His talents, /or??ief^ 
for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." 

Rule 8. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence from the 
verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually the comma at 
each extremity; as, "They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, ar- 
rived at the destined place." 

Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas; as, " J/3/ son, give me thy heart." "I am obliged to 
you, my friends, for your many favors." 

Rulp: 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa- 
rated by commas from the body of the sentence; as, " His father dying, he 
succeeded to the estate." "' At length, their ministry performed, and race well 
run, they left the world in peace." " To confess the triith, I was much in fault." 

Rule II. — Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the 
game case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad- 
juncts, are set off by commas; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 

sentence admit of a pause ? If so. where, and what you state what points should be placed in this sen. 

is the rule? '• I remember with gratitude his good- tence. and the rule for it? State the exceptions, 
ness to me." Will you .state how this sentence "'The king approving the plan put it in expcu- 

should be pointed, and the rule for it? Will you tion." Will you state how this sentence should be 

state the exception to this rule? pointed, and the rule for it ? 

" Plain honest truth watits do artificial cover- " They set out early and before the dr.wn of day 

i!is;." Wil! you state liow this sentence should be arrived at the destined p)ace." Will you state the 

P'lirited, and the rule for it? What exception is rule for pointing this sentence, and others of a 

there to this rule? "Virtue .supports in adver-sity similar kind? 

moderates in pro.cperity." Will you state how this "My son arive me thy heart." What is the rule 

eentc'cs should be pointed, ana the rule for it? for pointing tiiis sentence ? 
State the exceptions to this rule. " Paul the apostle of the Gentiles was eminent 

" We are fearfully wonderfullj framad." Will for his zeal and knowledge." Will you state how 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eminent for his zeal and knowledge." " The butterfly, child of the summer, 
flutters in the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not 
divided; as, " Paul the aj^ostie." '' The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent 
book." 

Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by a comparative par- 
ticle, are for the most part divided by the comma: as, ^^ As the hart panteth 
after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." ^^ Better is a dinner 
of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gen- 
eral, better omitted; as, "How much better is it to get wisdom than gold!" 

Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some 
marked variety, they require to be separated by the comma; as, 

" Though deep, yet clear ; thougli gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowiug, lull." 

" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in union 
with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, 
it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, *' Many states were in alliance 
with, and under the protection of Rome." 

The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns 
refer to the same preposition ; as, "He was composed both under the threat- 
ening, and at the approach, o/a cruel and lingering death." 

Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation,^ somewhat in 
the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with the comma: as, "It 
hurts a mnn's pride to say, I do not know." " Plutarch calls lying, the vice 
of slaves." 

Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit 
the comma before them; as, "He preaches sublimely, ii'/io lives a sober, 
righteous, and pious life." 

But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re- 
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma 
should be omitted; as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in v/hich the relative is not ex- 
pressed, but understood; as, "It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that 
his morals derived strength." 

Rule 16. — A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, or 
following another, must be distinguished by the comm.a; as, "To improve 
time whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." 
"Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of human 
life, we make that vanity, and we increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely connected, 
the comma is unnecessary; as, "' Revelation tells us how we may attain hap- 
piness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with several 
words between them, those words should generally have the comma at the 
end of them ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade 
one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and 
succeeding one another, are also divided by commas; as, "To relieve the 
indigent, to comfort the afilicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the 
deserving, are humane and noble emploj^ments." 

Rule 17. — When the verb to he is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former 

this sentence should be poiii ted, and the rule for it? limelv who lives a sober righteous and pious 

*' As the hart panteth after the water-brooks so doth life."" Will you state how this sentence should be 

my soul panfc after thee." How should this sen- pointed, jiiid the rule for it ? W^ill you state when 

tence be pointed, and what is the rule for it? the comma should be omitted? Does this rule ap- 

" Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not ply to cases in which the relative is expressed? 

dull." How should this sfnteuce be pointed, and Give an example. 

what is the rule for it? State the exception to "To improve time whilst we are blessed with 

this rule. "It hurts a man's pride to say I do health will smooth the bed of sickness." How should 

not know." How should this sentence be pointed, this sentence be pointed, and what is the rule for 

and what is the rule for it? "He preaohes sub- it? Will you state the exceptions to this rule? 



PROSODY. 191 

is generally separated from the latter verb by the comma ; as, " The most 
obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." *' The 
first and mosi obviovis remedy against the infeetiou is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Rule IS. — When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often 
when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by commas; 
as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
(Jaily and repeated exertions/' "Vices, like shadows, towards the evening 
of life, grow great and monstrous." 

Rule 19. — Where the verb is understood, the comma may often be properly 
introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the 
preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of them; as, 
" From law arises security ; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, know- 
ledge." 

Rule 20. — The words way, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, vote, 
lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next jyUtc^y in short, and all 
other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from 
the context by the comma. 



OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more 
parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor 
yet so little dependent on each other as thosewhich are distinguished by a colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the sen- 
tence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete 
without the concluding one; as in the following instance : '* As the desire of 
approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part 
of our species in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive 
to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 



OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected 
than those which are separated by a semicolon, but not so independent as sep- 
arate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases : 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some 
supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject; as, "Nature felt 
her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt; the gospel 
reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is 
necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as, " A 
divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty Governor, 
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest 
prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting 
the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, which sup- 
port integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The "colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech 
is introduced; as, "The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Deity, in these words : ^ God is love." " 



OF THE PEKIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and n(.t connected in con- 
struction with the following sentence, it is marked with the Period. 

" The most obvious remedy is to withdraw from ed, and what is the rtj!e for it? "He feared want 

all associations with badmpn." Will you state how hence he overvalued riches." Will you state how 

this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it? this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? 

"Vices like shadows towards the evening of life When is the semicolon used? When is the colon 

grow great ard monstrous." Wiil you crive the ru!e used ? In what three cases mar the colon oe prop- 

for pointingthis sentence, nndappfy it? "Froralaw erlv applied? 

arises security from security curiosity from cuiirts- When is the period used? After abbreviatel 

ity knowledge.'' How should this sentence be point- words what point should be used ? Give example! 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word ; as, M. S., P. S., 
N. B., A. D., 0, S., N. S., etc. 



THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, 
may be introduced with propriety where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; 
where a significant pause is required; or where there is an unexpected turn 
in the sentiment; as, ^' If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how 
fallen I how degraded !'* 



INTEREOGATION. 

The Note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence; 
that is, when a question is asked; as, *' Who will accompany me?" "Shall 
we always be friends ?'' 



EXCLAMATIQJ^. 

The Note of Exclamation is appIi^::?j,tQ expressions of sudden emotion, sur- 
prise, joy, grief, etc., and also to invocations or addresses; as, "My friend ! 
this conduct amazes me !" "Bless the Lord, my soul ) and forget not all 
his benefits ]'" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their 
quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon, a 
colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation of the 
voice. 



PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis marks a clause containing some necessary information or 
useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which 
may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, 

" Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue, alone, is happiness below." 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be 
accompanied with every point which the sense would require if the paren- 
thetical characters were omitted. 



Directions respecting the use of CAPITAL LETTERS. 
It is proper to begin with a capital — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally inde- 
pendent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the 
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships; as, 
George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Sea-horse. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, Roman, 
English, French, Italian, etc. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a 
direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' '* 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital. 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; as, John- 
son*s Dictionary of the English Language; Thomson's Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun /and the interjection are written in capitals. 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they are 
semarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

When may the dash be iotrodueed with pro- What is a parenthesis? Give an example in 

priety ? '• Who will accompany me ?" What point which it is used with propriety. Should the voice 

sbfrttld "be used at the end of this sentence ? be elevated or depressed in pronouncing a paren- 

To whfi* is the note of exclamntioa applied ? Give thesis ? 

an example. Are the exclamation and interroga- "Wlien sliould capital letters be used 7 
Ue^ i>£>i&t£ determinate as to their quantltj or time? 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

BY EPES SAROENT. 



Sentence, Subject and Predicate. 

§ 1. A Sentence (from the Latin sententia^ a thought or 
opinion) is such an arrangement of words as forms some 
complete sense; and by this is meant, that something is 
said about something; as, "The boy learns his lesson;" 
" The cat caught a mouse." 

If we merely utter the w^ords bojj cat, the question is 
naturally put, '^Well what of them?" In order to make 
sense, w^e must say somethiii^ of one or both of them ; that 
is, we must form a sentence. 

§ 2. Thus a sentence must contain at least two things : 
(1.) That which is mentioned^ (2.) What is spoken or 
said about that which is mentioned. 

That which is mentioned is called the Subject; the 
speech about the Subject is called the Predicate. 

§ 3. Analysis is the separation of a thing into its parts 
for examination. 

§ 4. There cannot be less than two words in a sentence; 
because nothing can be mentioned in less than one word, 
and no speech can take place about it in less than one 
word. In *^Kain falls'' we have an example of the 
shortest kind of sentence. 

§ 5. The Subject may be sometimes included in the form 
of the Predicate ; as in ''Go!" (= go thou, or go ye) ; but 
in analysis the understood word must be supplied. 

§ 6. It will be seen that we cannot form^a sentence by 
simply stringing together words that do not make sense : 
for example : — 

sky, star, moon ; snows, runs, found ; 
down, witli, call, for, never, brig^lit. 

The words wood ice do not form a sentence ; but wood 
burns is a sentence ; and ice melts is a sentence. 

§ 7. Tl[ie question, *< Wbo or what is mentioned?'' 
should draw forth in reply the Subject of the Sen- 
tence; and the question, ^M¥hat is said of the 
Subject ?'' should draw forth the Predicate. 

§ 8. The Subject generally comes before the Predicate, 
but not always; as, "Then came John," that is, "Then 
John came." Here John is the Subject. 

Copyright, 1877, by J. H. Butler & Co. 



194 ANALYSIS OF SEInTENCES. 

§ 9. The Subject may consist of more than one -word, 
and the Predicate may consist of more than one word. 

§ 10. Write down the following sentences, and under- 
line the Predicate in each : — 

1. Music soothes. 2. Industry enriches. 3. Gold glitters. 
4. Peter repented. 5. Kero fiddled. 6. Kings reign. 7. Carthage 
fell. 8. Eome remains. 

The two words in each of these sentences represent the 
two Chief Parts of Speech; the first is called the Noun, 
the second, the Verb. 

§ 11. The T¥ords naming* the Siilbjects are I^ouns ; 

tiie words giving tlie Predicates are Yerbs. 

Kinds of Sentence. 

§ 12. You may wonder that the term Predicate (coming 
from the Tjatin^prcedicatiimj " to state or to declare") should 
be used for any other kind of sentence than one making 
a direct statement, as in "John ran.'' 

But, for the sake of convenience, Y/e apply it to sen» 
tences of all kinds, including those which express a ques- 
tion, a command, or a wish. Thus: — 

(1) We may make a statement or declaration; as, 
"John ran." We then get a I>eelarative Sentence, 
(Latin, declaro^ " I make clear ;" cle, ** from," and clarus, 
"clear.") 

(2) We may ask a question; as, "Did John run?" 
We then get an Interrog'ative Sentence, (Latin, 
inter' TO go ^ "I ask.") 

(3) We may express a command; as, "Run.^' We 
then get an Imperative Sentence. (Latin, impero, "I 
command.") 

(4) We may express a wish; as, *'0h that John would 
run!" We then get an Optative Sentence. (Latin, 
opto, "I wish.") 

(5) We may utter an exclamation; as, "How vivid is 
the lightning!" We then get an Exclamatory Sen- 
tence. (Latin, exda'mo, "I cry out.") 

§13. State the character of the following sentences 
according to the foregoing rules : — 

1. The lamb skips. 2. Why are you late? 3. Charge, Chester, 
charge! 4. Oh tliat she were here! 5. May the skies be fair! 
6. How beautiful Ib night! 7. Bring forth the steed. 8. Life h 
short. 9. May good digestion wait on appetite! 10. Is he coming? 
11. What a fall was there! 12. Must we but weep? 13. Our 
fathers bled. 



ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCKS. 105 

§ 14. AVe have seen that a sentence need not contain 
more than two words; as, 'Mlain falls/' But on the other 
hand we may use several words in describing the thing 
mentioned, and as many more in making our assertion 
about it ; and there will still be only one sentence. 

"Alexander w^ept/' is a Simple Sentence. "Alexander 
the Great is said to have wept bitterly/' is also a Simple 
Sentence, though both the Subject and the Predicate are 
accompanied by modifying terms or Adjuncts. 

In the sentence, — 

"Every niountain || now liatli found a tongue*' 
the Predicate is not only the verb hath found, but that 
verb with its adjuncts 7iow and a tongue; and the Sub- 
ject is not only the nominative mountain, but that noun 
with its adjunct every. 

§ 15. Clauses and Phrases. — If I say, "Till the bells 
rang,'' I convey a sort of meaning, but do not say any- 
thing that makes complete sense; but if I say, "The men 
shouted till the hells rang,'' I say what you can understand, 
for it makes complete sense : it is a sentence, though not 
a Simple Sentence ; it is a Complex Sentence. 

" Till the bells rang,*' though it is a collection of w^ords 
which contains a Subject (bells) and a Predicate (rang), 
depends for its complete meaning on the principal sen- 
tence, "The men shouted;'' and being thus dependent, or 
what is called subordinate, the words do not form a sen- 
tence, but merely a Clause of a sentence. 

"The men shouted till the bells rang." Here, if the 
little word till were changed to the little word and, in- 
stead of a Complex Sentence there would be two 
Co-ordinate Sentences, or what some would call a 
Compound Sentence: "The men shouted and the 
bells rang." Here each sentence is, as you see, independ- 
ent of the other. 

§ 16. A Clause (from the Latin, clausum, "to shut") 
is a collection of words containing- a Subject and 
Predicate, but not expressing- a complete tiiou^iit; 

as, " When I shall return." 

§ 17. A Fbrase (from the Greek, phrasis, "speech") 
is a collection of words not containing- a Subject 
and Predicate, and tlierefore not expressing- a 
complete tkougiit ; as, " The water rising rapidly." 

§ 18. In the following examples, state which are the 
Clauses and which are the Phrases s— 

1. On deck. 2. Before he arrived. 3. The sea being calm. 



196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

4. If the wind is fair. 5. "When the sun rises. 6. If Mary goes to 
school. 7. Time permitting. 

§ 19. The Subject. — Every noim can stand as tlie 
Subject of a sentence ; and no sentence can "bo 
witiioiit a noun, or words equivalent to a noun^ as 
tlie Subject. 

§ 20. Other Parts of Speech than the Noun are used 
to indicate the person or thing spoken about; for instance, 
the Pronoun, the Adjective (with a noun understood), the 
Infinitive, and the Gerund (a participial form used as a 
noun). Thus we may say, "He went,' "The good are the 
great,'' "To die is gain," ''Dying is gain." 

Sometimes an entire phrase or sentence may be the 
equivalent of a noun, and form the Subject; as, "Jb he 
or not to be [that] is the question;" "That he erred is 
certain." 

§ 21. The Predicate. — Since the Predicate is that 
part of the sentence that makes a statement about the 
Subject, it must contain the chief Verb of the sentence. 

When tlie Predicate is a sing^le word, it is a Verb ; 

as, "Dogs barkJ' 

§ 22. Logically, if the Predicate says what the Subject 
is (as in " The man is a soldier ''), the Predicate is a Noun. 
If the Predicate states a quality of the Subject (as in 
" The book is new''), the Predicate is an Adjective. 

But if the Predicate is a Noun or an Adjective, it re- 
quires some other word to refer it to the Subject; and this 
must be a Verb, since that only has the power of referring. 
A Verb used for this purpose is called the Copula (Latin, 
a "couple" or "tie"). Only the verb to be in its finite 
forms, and a fevi^ other verbs, can be used as the Copula, 

In grammatical analysis we usually do not observe the 
logical distinction of the Copula. 

§ 23. Adjectives are sometimes put next to the noun 
to which they belong, and they are then said to be used 
attributively; as, "A red .ball." 

§ 24. Adjectives are sometimes joined to nouns (or to 
pronouns) by means of am, is, are, was, were, and other 
parts of the verb to be {also by means of seein, become, 
grow, get, look, stay, remain, feel, &c.) : then the adjective 
is said to be used predicatively ; as, " The ball is red;' 
"The rose smells sweets 

In these examples, adjectives at first appear to be 
attached to verbs, and so to take the place of adverbs. 
We also say, to keep a thing saje^ to serve dinner up hot^ 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 197 

to stand firm, to look fierce or angry. But in all these 
examples the adjective really belongs to the noun^ and 
not to the verb, 

§ 25. The verbs (very few in number) thus taking a 
predicate Adjective or Koun are sometimes called 
Verbs of Incomplete Fredicatioii. 

The verb to be, when it does not mean to live, or exist^ 
cannot form a Predicate. We must therefore join some 
word with it to make the Predicate ; as, ^* The earth is 
rounds Here we predicate of the earth, roundness, not 
existence. 

§ 26. In the following sentences, what Adjectives are 
used attributively, and what predicatively ? 

1. There is a white cow. 2. He gave me two apples. 3. The 
peaches are ripe. 4. The nights are longest in winter. 5. The 
soldiers are weary. 6. Who gave you that pretty book ? 

Analysis of Simple Sentences. 

§ 27. The parts of a simple Sentence may be : — (a) 
In all sentences, 1. Subject; 2. Predicate ; (6) Not in all 
sentences, 3. ObJ6)ct ; 4. Complements ; 5. Enlargements ; 
6. Extensions. 

§ 28. Enlargements. — All words attached to nouns, 
in whatever position in the sentence, are called Enlarg^e- 
ments. They are so named because they enlarge our 
knowledge of the thing spoken of. 

An enlargement may be : — 

(1) An adjective; as, ^^ Sharp words give oflence;** 
**SJiort accounts make lon^ friendships." 

(2) A noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as^ 
*^ John's hat is lost ; " ^' His coat is torn." 

(3) An adjective plirase; as, "A man of wisdom is 
respected;" "A walkm the fields is pleasant;" "A desire 
to learn is to be encouraged." 

(4) An adjective clause; as, "John, who is a car- 
penter, made this box." 

(5) A shortened adjective clause, called a noun 
in apposition ; as, " John, the carpenter, made this box ;'' 
" William the Conqueror'^ 

Participles, whether they come before or after the 
noun, are adjectives ; as, ''Rolling stones gather no moss," 
or, "Stones, rolling continually, gather no moss." 

§ 29. An Enlarg-ement (called by some **an At- 
tributive Adjunct") is eitber an adjective or 
some word or plirase bavin^ tbe nature of an 
adjective. 



198 ANALYSIS OF SE^^TENCES. 

§ 30. Predicate, Complement, Object.— The Predi^ 
cate, being that part of the sentence that makes a state- 
ment about the Subject, must therefore contain the chief 
verb of the sentence ; and we have seen that when the 
Predicate is a single word it is a verb ; as, " Winds 
bloiu,^^ " The sun s/mies." 

§ 31. Verbs which do not convey a complete sense by 
themselves (see §§ 24, 25) form a Predicate by the aid of 
other words, which when thus used are called the Com- 
plement of the verb. 

When the Predicate is made up of a verb of incom- 
plete predication with a Complement, it is called 
Complex; as, ''The streets are tvet;'^ ''The confusion 
became terrific.^' 

The Compleiuent need not be a single word; it may 
be a noun or an infinitive with any of the enlargements 
enumerated above (§ 28). 

The verb has its Complement where it requires an 
infinitive mood to follow it; as in "I did not think to shed 
a tear;" "What conscience dictates to be doneJ^ 

§ 32. W^hen the Predicate Verb is transitive, it has an 
Object. The Object is really part of the Predicate ; but 
inasmuch as it is oftenest a noun, and is open to all the 
equivalents and enlargements of the noun as Subject, it 
is for convenience' sake taken separately. 

§ 33. The Object may be either Direct or Indirect. 
Both are often combined in the same sentence; as, "Give 
me the daggers;" "Heat m,e these irons hot." 

The Indirect Object may be indicated either by a simple 
Objective or by the preposition to or for; as, "Give me 
(Ind. Obj.) the daggers'' (Direct Obj.) ; or " Give the dag- 
gers (Direct Obj.) to me" (Ind. Obj.). 

Some verbs have two Direct Objects; as, "They made 
him a king.'' 

The enlarg"ements of the noun as Object are the 
same as the enlargements of the noun as Subject: namely, 
an Adjective, a Possessive, an Adjective Phrase, an Ad- 
jective Clause, a Noun in apposition. 

§ 34. Extensions. — Extension (called by some Ad- 
verbial Adjunct) is applied to all words and phrases 
which attach themselves to the Predicate. An extension 
is therefore either an Adverb or some word or phrase par- 
taking of the nature of an Adverb ; as, " Iser rolls rapidhj;'^ 
"The army fled in a panic;" "He played the tyrant 
vdthoui remoTBeJ^ 



ANALYSIS eF SENTENCES. 199 

The Adverbial Phrase may be: — 

( 1) A noun; as, "He slept an hour;'' " Wait a moment;'' 
**He leaps a yard," 

(2) A preposition and noun; as, "You lived without 
virtue;" ''We should profit hy experience'' 

(3) A noun qualified by some adjunct ; as, " He rested 
a few minutes;" "He struck his antagonist a heavy blow" 

(4) A participle or a participial phrase ; as, " He 
advanced trembling ;" " Toiling^ rejoicing, sorrowing, on- 
ward through life he goes.'' 

(5) An infinitive; as, " He is very foolish to take such a 
thing to heart" (infinitive with preposition). 

In such sentences as, " The night coming on, we retraced 
our steps," the participial phrase is said to be in the 
Nominative Absolute. 

In such sentences as, " He was wonderfully active, con- 
sidering his age," where the Participle neither refers to 
the Subject of the verb, nor has a Subject of its own, it 
is said to be used impersonally. Only a few participles, 
such as "granting," "considering," " allowing," are used 
in this way. 

Except in these cases, a participial phrase, standing 
at the beginning of a sentence, qualifies either the Subject 
or the Predicate of the sentence. This is not always 
attended to. In the sentence, "Meeting him the other 
day, he asked me," the participial i>hrase is designed 
to apply to "me," but from its position it must be read as 
applying to "/le." Such constructions should be guarded 
against. 

The Extensions are nothing else than adverbial ad- 
juncts or qualifications of the Predicate, and they may 
be put into the same classes as adverbs, according as they 
mark the when, where, how, and why of the Predicate. 

Analysis of Simple Sentences. 
§ 35. In analyzing Simple Sentences the manner of 
proceeding is as follows: — 

1. Set down the Subject of the Sentence. 

2. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, 
of the Subject. 

3. Give the Predicate verb. If this is a verb of In- 
complete Predication, state the Complement also. 

4. When the Predicate is a transitive verb, state the 
Object. 

5. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, 
of the Object. 



200 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



6. Give the Extensions (adverbial adjuncts) of the 
Predicate. 

For the sake of clearness the Analysis of Sentences 
is usually presented in a tabular form, though there are 
other modes of exhibiting it. The following may serve 
as examples of the mode of exhibiting the Analysis of 
Simple Sentences: — 

1. ''By sunrise we all assembled in our common apart- 
ment." 



Subject 


Enlargement of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Extensions. 


We 


all 


assembled 


(1.) hy sunrise 
(2.) in our com- 
mon apart- 
ment. 



2. ''His harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy." 



Subject. 


Enlargements of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Extension. 


Harp 


(1.) his 

(2.) his sole re- 
maining joy 


was carried 


by an orphan 
boy. 



3. ** At a small distance from the house, my predecessor 
had made a seat overshadowed by a hedge of hawthorn 
and honeysuckle." 



Subject, 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predi- 
cate. 


Ob- 
ject. 


Enlargement 
of Object 


Extension. 


Prede- 
cessor 


my 


had 
made 


a 
seat 


over- 
shadowed 
by a hedge 
of hawthorn 
and honey- 
suckle. 


at a small 

distance 

from the 

house. 



Same Sentence: Simple Scheme. 



Subject with en- 
largement 



My predecessor 



Predicate. 



had made 



Object with enlarge- 
ment 



a seat overshadowed 
by a hedge of haw- 
thorn and honey- 
suckle 



Extension, 



at a small dis- 
tance from 
the house. 



4. " It was my constant rule in life never to avoid the 
conversation of any man." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



201 



Subject {Phrase.) 


Predicate. 


Nevek to avoid the conversa- 
tion 01 any man 


was my constant rule in life. 
[was, Verb of incomplete 
predication.] 



]>^^ ]g^ — Here the word it disappears in analysis, being only a locum 
tenens (one holding the place, — a substitute) for the real Subject. 
So likewise there in No. 5. 

The real Subject in No. 4 may be ascertained by putting 
the question, What was my constant rule . . . ? — Ansiver, 
Never to avoid the conversation of any man. 

5. " There is no place like home.'' 



Subject 


Enlargement of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Place 


no 


is like home, [is, Verb 
of incomplete pre- 
dication.] 



6. " The courageous dwarf dealt one of the champions 
a most angry blow." 



Subject. 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Objects. 


Enlargement 
of Object. 


Dwarf 


(1) The 
(2) coura- 
geous 


dealt 


(1) a blow [Direct 
Object.] 

(2) one^ of the 
champions [In- 
direct Object.] 


most angry 



7. "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 



Subject. 


Enlargement of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


Enlargements of 
Object. 


Curfew 


The 


tolls 


knell 


(1) the 

(2) of parting day 



8. "But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, 

Always from port withheld, always distressed, — 
The howling winds drive devious, — tempest-tossed, 
Sails^rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." 

Cowper. 



202 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Subject, 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


Enlargements 
of Object. 


Extensions 
Predicate. 


Winds 


howling 


drive 


me 


(1) devious 

(2) tempest- 
tossed 

(3) scarce 
hoping to 
attain that 
rest 

(4) always 
from port 
withheld 

(5) always 
distressed 


(1) saik 
rent 

(2) seams 
opening 
wide 

(3) com- 
pass lost 

[Nomina- 
tivesAb- 
solute.] 



Compound, Co-ordinate, Contracted and 
Elliptical Sentences. 

§ 86. We have seen that when a sentence contains only 
one Subject and one finite verb (i. e., a verb not in the 
infinitive mood), it is called a Simple Sentence. Two 
simple sentences may be united together by a co-ordinate 
conjunction (i. e., one of the conjunctions and, either, or, 
neither, nor, but), joining two independent sentences to 
form a Compound Sentence ; as, ''Birds fly and fish 
swim,''^ 

Each member of the Compound Sentence makes com- 
plete sense by itself, and neither depends upon the other 
for its meaning. The second member of a co-ordinate 
sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the first. 

When two or more distinct statements (Simple 
Sentences), not dependent upon each other, are 
brought tog-ether hy means of and, or, wor, etc., 
they are said to be Co-ordinate, and are analyzed 
as simple sentences. 

Examples: — (1) "My orchard was often robbed by 
schoolboys, and my wife's custards plundered by the cats." 

Analyze : — 1. My orchard was often robbed by school- 
boys. 2. My wife's custards were often plundered by the 
cats. 

(2) " The giant and the dwarf were friends and kept 
together." 

Analyze: — 1. The giant and the dwarf were friends. 
2. The giant and the dwarf kept together. 

(3) " They were all very joyful at this victory, and 
the damsel fell in love with the giant, and married him." 

Analyze : — 1. They were all very joyful at this victory. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 203 

2. The damsel fell in love with the giant. 3. The damsel 
married him (the giant). 

(4) " We had no revolutions to fear, nor fatigues to 
undergo." 

Analyze : — 1. We had no revolutions to fear. 2. We 
had no fatigues to undergo. 

Sentences in which the repetition of Subject or Predi- 
cate is avoided by the use of a Conjunction are called 
Contracted Sentences. Thus, " John returned home 
yesterday and James returned home yesterday" = ** John 
and James returned home yesterday." The latter is a 
contracted sentence. 

Sometimes the word and has rather the force of a pre- 
position than of a conjunction; and then the nouns 
connected by it must be treated as the conjoint Subject or 
Object, This is the case in such sentences as the follow- 
ing : — ''Bread and butter is wholesome fare ;" " I'wo and 
two are four ;" " Copper^ zinc, and calamine- stone form 
brass ;" " The book costs two and sixpenceJ^ 

An Elliptical Sentence is one in which something is 
omitted which is essential to the complete construction of 
the sentence, but which is readily supplied in thought, 
without being expressed in words. 

Contracted Sentences are one variety of Elliptical 
Sentences, in which wdiat is common to two or more co- 
ordinate sentences is expressed only once. In the sentences 
now to be considered, that which is omitted is not common 
to two or more clauses. 

§ 37. Kelative pronouns and relative adverbs are 
sometimes omitted. 

Examples of Elliptical Sentences. 

1. "That is the book I gave you." In full— ^^ That is 
the book which I gave you." 

2. " That is the way I came." In full—" That is the 
way which (or by which) I came." (Here the which or by 
which will be in the adverbial relation to the verb 
came,) 

3. " He left the dayl arrived." In full—" He left the 
day that (or on which) I arrived." (Here the day is in 
the adverbial relation to left ; that (or on ivhich) is in the 
adverbial relation to arrived; and the dependent clause 
that . I arrived is an Adjective Clause qualifying day.) 

4. " He is as tall as I am." In full — " He is as tall as 
I am tail,'' 

5. " He is more industrious than clever." In full — " He 



204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

is more industrious than he is clever." Here the Ai 
verbial Clause than he is clever qualifies the adverb more. 
6. " He has not written so much as I have." In full— 
"He has not written so much as I have written much.'' 

Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

§ 38. A Complex Sentence, while containing but one 
principal Subject and one principal Predicate, has two or 
more finite verbs; as, ''What can't be cured must be en- 
dured ;" " If thy heart fail thee, do not climb at all." 

The part containing the principal Subject and Predicate 
is called the Principal Clause; the other part, the 
Subordinate Clause or Clauses; as, "do not climb at 
all" {principal), "if thy heart fail thee" {subordinate). 

The Subordinate Clauses which may enter into the 
construction of a Complex Sentence are of three kinds :— 
1. Substantive Clauses; ^2, Adjective Clauses; 3. Ad- 
verbial Clauses. 

In the sentence, "That the man has abilities is not to 
be denied," the clause "that the ijian has abilities" is the 
Subject, and serves the function of a noun. Such clauses 
are called Substantive Clauses,* 

In the sentence, "The man that brought the letter is at 
the door," the clause "that brought the letter" qualifies 
or restricts "man," and so serves as an Adjective. 

In the sentence, "He was gone before I arrived," the 
clause "before I arrived" indicates the time of the action, 
and so serves the function of an Adverb. 

§39. Clauses are thus distinguished into Sub- 
stantive Clauses, Adjective Clauses, and Adverbial 
Clauses, according^ to the Fart of Speech that they 
represent. (See 1 16.) 

§40. The Substantive Clause. — The Substantive 
Clause occupies the place of the noun, and may be the 
Subject or the Object of the Principal Clause,^ as, " Thai 
fortune favors the brave is a cheering maxim ;" "I heard 
that a battle had been fought ;" " I have said what I have said." 

The Substantive Clause may also, like the noun, be 
used to complete a Predicate; as, "The result was that he 
left the country.'' 

§ 41. In such sentences as, "The fact that man's poivera 
are limited is not sufficiently recognized," the Substan- 
tive Clause is in apposition to the noun '\fact" 

*Also called, by some, "Noun Clauses." Substantives comprehend 
(1) Nouns : (2) The Substantive Pronoun ; (3) The Infinitive Mood ; (4) Ger- 
unds, or Verbal Nouns ; (5) A Substantive Clause. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 205 

In "It is hard that a man cannot enjoy the fruits of his 
own industry^' the Substantive Clause is in apposi° 
tion to ''it:' 

§ 42. The words used to introduce Substantive Clauses 
are, tkat^ what, ivhen, whence, hoio, why, &c. ; as, '' We know 
what we are, but we know not what we shall bef^ " Let ine 
know when yon can eomef' " I will find out whence you derive 
that idea ;" ''How far I have succeeded is for you to judge ;'' 
" Why he left so suddenly, we could never understand." 

§43. -The conjunction ''that" is frequently omitted 
before a Substantive Clause standing as Object ; as, " I 
said in my haste, All men are liars f^ ''Tell me not in 
mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dreamJ' 

§ 44. The Adjective Clause. — When a clause limits, 
defines, or adds to the meaning of a noun, the clause is 
of the nature of an adjective; as, "I venerate the man 
whose heart is warm" (the iv arm-hearted man) ; " Thoughts 
that breathe and words that burn J ^ 

An Adjective Clause may be found in any place of 
the sentence where a noun may occur for an adjective to 
qualify : — 

1. It maybe found with the Subject; as, "Happy is 
the man that findeth wisdom f "Every plague that can 
infest society is found there ;" "All the vices that oppression 
generates, flourished in the unhappy country.'' 

2. It may be found with the Object; as, "I see the 
golden helmet that shines far off like flame ;" " Teach me 
the way wherein to walk:' 

3. It may be found in Adverbial Adjuncts; as, "We 
are not bound by promises that have been extorted by 
violence f' "Some excuse seems necessary for the pain 
that we occasion to brutes :' 

Adjective Clauses may be restrictive (having a limiting 
effect), or they may be co-ordinate. 

For introducing restrictive adjective clauses, the 
relative that and its equivalents are preferable to who 
or which and their equivalents. Thus, "The man that 
brought the letter," is preferable to " the man who brought 
the letter." 

For introducing co-ordinate clauses, the proper 
relatives are who, which, and their equivalents ; as, " The 
mail-train, which usually is so punctual, was late yester- 
day." To use ''that'' would imply that there are several 
mail-trains, and that one of them is specially punctual. 

§45. The Adverbial Clause. — An Adverbial 



203 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Clause is the equivalent of an adverb; as, ^'Meet me 
when the clock strikes one.'^ 

Adverbial Clatises may be divided into as many 
classes as adverbs, and, like them, may qualify verbs, 
adjectives, or other adverbs. Usually, however, an 
Adverbial Clause attaches itself to the Predicate. 

In the sentence, ^' He was Avriting a letter when I 
arrived,'' the Adverbial Clause '* when I arrived " indi- 
cates the time at which the action, expressed by the verb 
*' ivas writing,'^ took place. The Clause '^ tvhen I arrived '' 
is in tlie adverbial relation to the verb '' ivas writing'.'' 

In the sentence, " Tears such as angels weep burst Ibrth," 
the Adverbial Clause ''as angels weep'' attaches itself 
to the adjective ''such,'' 

In the sentence, "The picture was so very large that 
we had no place in the house to fix it," the Adverbial 
Clause "that we had no place in the house to fix it" 
attaches itself to the adverb "so." 

The Adverbial Clause may be contracted by omitting 
the verb, or by changing it into a participle; as, "I will 
not give way until I am compelled by the infirmities of 
age." Here "I am " may be omitted. In "As we walked 
by the side of the river, we met a very strange fellow," 
^'as lue walked " may be changed to " ivalking." 

§ 46. The different kinds of Clauses may have the 
same, or nearly the same, form ; so that they can be 
accurately distinguished only by considering their func- 
tion in the sentence. 

Thus in (1) "He behaved so badly that he was dis- 
missed" the italicized words form an Adverbial Clause. 

In (2) " Some one told me that he ivas dismissed" the 
italicized words form a Substantive Clause. 

In (3) " The man that was dismissed called to see us," 
the italicized words form an Adjective Clause. 

§ 47. Complex Sentences are to be analyzed in the 
first instance as if each Subordinate Clause were a 
single word or phrase. The Subordinate Clauses are then 
to be analyzed separately. 

We mark the principal Subject and Predicate, arrange 
under each the Subordinate Clauses which modify or 
enlarge them, and then analyze each in order. 

Examples of the Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

1, "The unfortunate man had just heard that he had 
lost all his property." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 207 

Subject "raan" 

( (1) " the*' 
Enlargement of Subject . . . j ^9) "unfortunate'' 

Predicate *' had heard" 

^,..07 .. ^7 N f ''that he had lost al) 

Object {Substantive Clause) - - i ^jg property" 

Extension "just'' 

ANALYSIS OI'^ SUBSTANTIVJ5 CLAUSE. 

Subject "he" 

Predicate "had lost" 

Object "property" 

Enlargements of Object . . . \ (2\ "his" 

2. " We went out to play when we had finished our task/' 
Subject " we." 

Predicate ... " went." 

r(i)"out" 

Extensions . . . ■< (2) " to play" 

( (3) Adverbial Clause^ " when we 
had finished our task." 

ANALYSIS OF AI>YEKBIAL CLAUSE. 

Subject "we" 

Predicate " had finished" 

Object "task" 

Enlargement of Object ... " our" 
Extension {Adverbial Adjunct) " when" 

3. " Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down.'^ 

Subject '' you, ^' understood. 

Predicate " mark." 

^, . I "how a plain tale shall put you 

•^ ( down" {Substantive Clause,) 

Extension " now." 

Analyze now the Substantive Clause. 

4. " The hope that I shall be successful sustains me." 
Here the Substantive Clause " that I shall be suc- 
cessful" is an enlargement of the Subject " hope." 

5. " There was a report that you were dead." 

Here the Subject is " report ;" the enlargements of tke 
Subject are (1) "a," (2) the Substaiitive Clause "that 
you were dead ;" the Predicate is " was ;" and the Exten- 
sion, or adverbial adjunct, of the Predicate is " there." 

6. " Give me that large book that you have in ycur 
land." 

Here the Adjective Clause " that you have in youi 



208 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

hand" is in the attributive relation to the Object " book." 
The relative "that'' is the Object of "have." 

§ 48. Contracted Sentences. — Before a contracted 
sentence is analyzed, the parts omitted must be expressed 
at full length; as: — 

" We perceive that these things not only did not happen, 
but could not have happened." In full — (A) " We per- 
ceive that these things not only did not happen." (B) 
" We perceive that these things could not have happened." 

Vvhen the co-ordinate sentences or clauses are connected 
by neither, nor, the simple negative not may be substituted 
for each in the analysis, the conjunctive portion of the 
words being omitted ; as : — 

"The man who neither reverences nobleness nor loves 
goodness is hateful." In full — (A) " The man who 
reverences not nobleness is hateful." (B) "The man 
who loves not goodness is hateful." 

§ 49. Simple Sentences for Analysis, 

1. Not a drum was heard. 2. The Greeks fled towards the city. 
8. My hopes no more must change their name. 4. Her home is 
on the deep. 5. Britannia needs no bulwark. 

§ 50. Complex Sentences for Analysis. 

1. I often think of the night which I spent with you. 2. I 
believe that he is honest. 3. He started when he heard the news. 

§ 51. AYrite out the following sentences, and draw one 
line under the verb of incomplete predication in each, 
and two lines under the coniplenieiit of tlie Predicate. 
Show also whether the coniplement relates to the Sub- 
ject or to the Object of the verb : — 

1. He grew rich suddenly. 2. They became very poor. 3. He 
is honest. 4. He called the man a liar. 5. That step was thought 
imprudent. 6. We consider this course expedient. 

§ 52, Underline the Substantive Clauses in the fol- 
lowing Complex Sentences : — 

1. He knows well enough that I never said so. 2. That he did 
the deed is quite certain. 3. Tell me how old you are. 4. Do you 
know when they set out? 5. It is not true that he was sick. 

§ 53. Underline the Adjective Clauses in the follow- 
ing Complex Sentences:— 

1. The hook which I lent him was torn in pieces. 2. The reason 
why you cannot succeed is evident. 3. Show me the book which 
you have in vour hand. 4. Who steals my purse, steals trash. 
§64. Underline the AdverMal Clauses in the follow- 
ing examples, and then analyze each sentence: — ^ 

1. I will tell you the secret when I see you. 2. He is happy 
because he is contented. 3. I could not see him, for he was not at 
Eoina 4 He will go to ruin unless he alters his conduct. 



